Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Chapter 5:
Memory: Models and
Research Methods
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Some Questions of Interest
• What are some of the tasks used for studying
memory?
• What is the traditional model of memory?
What are some of the alternative models?
• What have psychologists learned by studying
both exceptional memory and the physiology
of the brain?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
But first, a test!
• Let’s generate some words…
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Processes in Memory
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Which type of test would you
rather have?
An essay or a multiple-choice exam?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Demonstration
• The 7 Dwarfs
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Methods Used to Study
Memory
• Recall
– Serial recall
– Free recall
– Cued recall
• Recognition
• = these are explicit memory tasks
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Implicit memory
• Remember priming?
• Procedural memory, too
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Implicit Memory Tasks
Participants are
exposed to a word list
Tiger
Lion
Zebra
Panda
Leopard
Elephant
After a delay…
Participants then
complete word puzzles;
they are not aware this is
a type of memory test
Word fragment
completion:
C_E_TA_
E_E_ _A_ N_
_E_RA
Word stem completion:
Mon _____
Pan_____
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Procedural Memory
• Knowing how to do something
– Ride a bike
– Skateboard
– Ski
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Methods to Assess Procedural
Memory
• Rotary-pursuit
task
– Keep stylus on a dot
on a rotating disk
• Mirror-tracing task
– Watch mirror image
to trace a figure
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Models of Memory
• Represent ways that memory has been
conceptualized
– Atkinson & Shiffrin’s three-stage model
– Craik & Lockhart’s level of processing
model
– Baddeley’s working memory model
– Tulving’s multiple memory systems model
– McClelland & Rumelhart’s connectionist
model
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Traditional Model of Memory
• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) threestage model
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Sperling Sensory Memory
Demonstration:
CogLab Partial Report
• A matrix of 12 letters and numbers
briefly flash on the next few slides
• As soon as you see the
information, write down everything
you can remember in its proper
location
Chapter 5
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Sperling’s Results
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Averbach & Coriell (1961)
Iconic Memory Research
N M L C WD PQ
A X I N YK J U
- Showed matrix for 50 msec
- Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays
- Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in
sensory memory
- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this
technique
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Second Demonstration
G E U L M F S X
WP M B D H J Y
- Showed matrix for 50 msec
- Placed a small mark above a letter at different delays
- Found that as many as 12 letters could be stored in
sensory memory
- Backward visual masking was also discovered with this
technique
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Sensory Stores
• Iconic store or visual sensory register
– Holds visual information for 250 msec
longer
– Information held is pre-categorical
– Capacity: up to 12 items
– Information fades quickly
• Econ or auditory sensory register
– Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds
longer to enable processing
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Short-Term Memory
Rehearsal
• Attention
– Attend to
information in the
sensory store, it
moves to STM
Short-Term
Memory
(STM)
• Rehearsal
– Repeat the
information to keep
maintained in STM
• Retrieval
– Access memory in
LTM and place in
STM
Attention
Storage &
Retrieval
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Demonstration: STM span
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Research on Short-Term
Memory
• Miller (1956)
– Examined memory capacity
– 7+/- 2 items or “chunks”
• Chunking: organize input into larger
units
– 1 9 8 0 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 3 - Exceeds capacity
– 1980 1998 2003 - Reorganize by
chunking
Birth
year
HS
graduation
College
graduation
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Long-Term Memory
• Capacity
– Thus far limitless
• Duration
– Potentially
permanent
Long-Term
Memory
(LTM)
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Bahrick’s Research on Very LongTerm Memory
• High school yearbooks containing student names
and photos
• 392 high school graduates (17-74) took four
different memory tests
• For some of the participants, it was as long as 48
years since they graduated
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Bahrick et al. (1975) Results
• 90% accuracy in face and name recognition
after 34 years
• 80% accuracy for name recognition after 48
years
• 40% accuracy for face recognition after 48
years
• 60% accuracy for free recall after 15 years
• 30% accuracy for free recall after 30 years
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Levels of Processing
Model of Memory
• Craik & Lockhart (1972)
– Deep processing leads to better memory
• Elaborating according to meaning leads to a strong
memory
– Shallow processing emphasizes the physical
features of the stimulus
• The memory trace is fragile and quickly decays
– Distinguished between maintenance rehearsal
and elaborative rehearsal
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Support for Levels of
Processing
• Craik & Tulving (1975)
– Participants studied a list in three different
ways
• Structural: Is the word in capital letters?
• Phonemic: Does the word rhyme with dog?
• Semantic: Does the word fit in this sentence?
“The ______ is delicious.”
– A recognition test was given to see which
type of processing led to the best memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Craik & Tulving (1975) Results
1
Case
0.9
Rhyme
Recognized
0.8
Sentence
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Yes
No
Sentence Type
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
cogLab: levels of processing
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Self-Reference Effect
• Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977)
– Encoding with respect to oneself
increases memory
Capital
letters?
Rhymes
with?
Means the
same as?
Describes
you?
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Baddeleys’ Working Memory
Model
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model
• Phonological Loop
– Used for acoustic rehearsal
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad
– Used for visuo-spatial information
• Episodic buffer
• Used for storage of a multimodal code, holding an
integrated episode between systems using different codes
• Central executive
• Focuses attention
• Plans sequence of tasks, switches attention between different parts
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model Support
• Baddeley (1986)
– Participants studied two different list types
– 1 syllable: wit, sum, harm, bay, top
– 5 syllables: university, opportunity,
aluminum, constitutional, auditorium
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Working Memory Model Support
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad
– Dual-task paradigm
– Sketchpad can be disrupted by
requiring participants to repeatedly
tap a specified pattern of keys or
locations while using imagery at the
same time
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Neuroscience
and Working
Memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Tulving’s Multiple-Memory
Systems Model
• Semantic memory
– General knowledge
– Facts, definitions, historical dates
• Episodic memory
– Event memories (first kiss, 6th birthday)
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Multiple-Memory Systems Model
Support
• Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving (1996)
– Asked people to engage in semantic or episodic
memory tasks while being monitored by PET
• Results
– Left (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially
active in encoding (both) and in semantic
memory retrieval
– Right (hemisphere) frontal lobe differentially
active in retrieval of episodic memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Connectionist Perspective
• Parallel distributed
processing model
– Memory uses a network
– Meaning comes from
patterns of activation
across the entire network
– Spreading activation
network model
– Supported by priming
effects
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Exceptional Memory
• Case studies of mnemonists
• Studies of skilled memory
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Memory Movies
• Take any character from a movie who has a
memory deficit, and, using terms from the
chapters, explain what the memory problem
is and why it occurs
– Johnny Mnemonic; 50 First Dates; Memento; Total
Recall; Bourne Identity; Dark City; Manchurian
Candidate; Overboard; The Changeling; Eternal
Sunshine of the Spotless Mind; The Majestic:
Mulholland Drive; The Notebook; Paycheck;
Sommersby; The Vow
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Case Studies
• S. (Luria, 1968)
– Long strings of words
– Remembered over 15-18 years
• Rajan Mahadevan
– Can recite pi to 31,811 places
– No forgetting on matrices up to 20 x
20 digits
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Deficient Memory
• Amnesias
– Retrograde amnesia
• Loss of memory for events that occurred
before the trauma
– Infantile amnesia
• Inability to recall events of young
childhood
– Anterograde amnesia
• No memory for events that occur after
the trauma
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Amnesia Studies
• Amnesiacs show normal priming
(implicit), but poor recognition
memory (explicit)
– They did not remember having seen the
word list, but completed the word
fragments at the same rate as normals
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Hippocampus and Memory
– Critical for integration and
consolidation
– Essential for declarative
memory
– Without the
hippocampus, only the
learning of skills and
habits, simple
conditioning, and the
phenomenon of priming
can occur
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease
• Symptoms (gradual, continuous, and
irreversible)
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Memory loss
Problems doing familiar tasks
Problems with language
Trouble knowing the time, date, or place
Poor or decreased judgment
Problems with abstract thinking
Misplacing things often, such as keys
Changes in mood, behavior, and personality
• These symptoms could be an early sign of
Alzheimer’s when it affects daily life
Cognitive Psychology, Sixth Edition, Robert J. Sternberg
Chapter 5
Alzheimer’s Disease and the
Brain
• Atrophy of the cortical tissue
– Alzheimer’s brains shows abnormal fibers that
appear to be tangles of brain tissue and senile
plaques (patches of degenerative nerve endings)
– The resulting damage of these conditions may
lead to disruption of impulses in neurons