How significant was the New
Culture Movement (新文化运动)?
L/O – To assess the significance of the New Culture
Movement to the development of China
Chen Duxiu 陈独秀
(1879-1942)
Cai Yuan-pei 蔡元培
(1876-1940)
Hú Shih 胡适
(1891-1962)
What was the New Culture Movement?
• An intellectual revolution that changed the
way that Chinese culture saw itself.
• Its proponents attempted to radically
change the ‘thought base’ of society in
order to successful modernise China.
• Its focus was on introducing Western
Thought by destroying Cultural
Traditionalism and Confucianism.
• Some have called it the most drastic social
and intellectual change in Chinese history,
even a ‘Chinese Renaissance’.
What was the New Culture Movement?
• Many historians like C.Y. Hsü (2000) view the New Culture
Movement as the third stage of China’s response to Western
Impact:
• Stage 1: Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895) – Superficial
attempts at diplomatic and military modernisation
• Stage 2: Reform and Revolution (1898-1912) – Acceptance of
Western Political and Educational Institutions
• Stage 3: Intellectual Awakening (1917-1923) – A further shift
away from traditional Chinese base towards complete
Westernisation
Who were the key intellectuals?
• Chen Duxiu 陈独秀 (1879-1942) – from
Anhwei, trained in Chinese classical
studies, passed the Qing civil service exam
in 1896. Studied in Japan 1902-06 then
moved to France in 1907, becoming
heavily influence by Western philosophy.
• He returned home in 1910 and
participated in the 1911 Revolution. Fled
to Japan after the second revolution in
1913. Returned in 1915 in protest at the
21-Demands, founding the magazine ‘New
Youth’. He would later become the
founding father of the Chinese Communist
Party.
Who were the key intellectuals?
• Cai Yuan-pei 蔡元培 (1876-1940) – from
Chekiang, won second & third degrees
and member of the Hanlin academy.
Studied in Germany, returning home in
1911. Minister of Education in Dr. Sun’s
government, resigning when Yuan Shikai
took the Presidency.
• Went to Germany and France in 1912,
returning in 1916 to take up the
Chancellorship of the National University
of Peking, reforming the institution into an
intellectual powerhouse.
Who were the key intellectuals?
• Hú Shih 胡适 (1891-1962) – had a classical
training and studied in the USA from 1909,
earning a BA and PhD in Philosophy from
Cornell and Columbia.
• Returned home in 1917 and was appointed as
Professor of Literature at National University
of Peking by Cai Yuan-pei.
• Hú was heavily influenced by the philosophy
of pragmatism, scientific methods of thought
and the evolutionary improvement of society.
Initiated the movement for the vernacular
use of Chinese (pai-hua) in literature.
What were the long-term causes?
1. Impact of Western Ideas – Chinese
intellectuals had studied
Nationalism, Democracy, Liberalism,
Socialism, Pragmatism and Scientific
Methods in Western countries – all
created a desire for reform.
2. New Politically-Conscious Classes –
A rising merchant-entrepreneur
class had emerged since 1912 and
the economic boom in China during
the First World War fostered their
growing strength – they were often
educated abroad, strongly
nationalistic and benefited from
reforms.
What were the short-term causes?
3. Failure of the 1911 Revolution – Yuan
Shikai’s betrayal of republicanism,
attempts at re-instating the Monarchy and
Confucian system and descent into
Warlordism – angered intellectuals and
progressives.
4. Japan’s 21-Demands – Yuan Shikai’s
humiliating acceptance of the 21-Demands
in 1915 sparked fears of imminent
extinction and an outburst of nationalism Students returned home to protest,
merchants organised boycotts of Japanese
goods and a ‘new culture movement’ was
started by a group of prominent
intellectuals.
Events of the New Culture Movement
• The movement began as an intellectual
response to recent events in China. The 21Demands of 1915 sparked an outpouring of
anger and a desire to radically reform China.
• From 1915, key intellectuals returned home
and called for a critical re-evaluation of
Chinese culture and heritage – the Confucian
system was seen as the primary factor blocking
reforms.
• They called for the complete introduction of
Western thought and ideas, which transformed
the literary and intellectual personality of
China.
Chen Duxiu and New Youth Magazine
• Chen (陈独秀) was first to return home in
1915, founding the magazine ‘New Youth’
(新青年) in Shanghai.
• His editorial aim was to rouse the youth of
China to destroy old traditions and achieve
a national ‘awakening’.
• Chen was particularly against Confucianism.
He saw it as a product of an agrarian and
feudal society, at odds with the modern
world. China had to destroy it or the
country would be eliminate by natural
selection!
‘We indeed do not know which of our traditional institutions may be fit for
survival in the modern world. I would rather see the ruin of our traditional
“national quintessence” than have our race of the present and future
extinguished because of its unfitness for survival… The world continually
progresses and will not stop. All those who cannot change themselves and
keep pace with it are unfit for survival and will be eliminated by the process
of natural selection. Therefore, what is the good of conservatism?’
Chen Duxiu in Chow, Tse-tsung. The May Fourth
Movement: Intellectual Revolution in Modern China.
Cambridge, Mass, 1960, 46.
Chen Duxiu and New Youth Magazine
• He criticised Confucianism in particular
because it was seen as the root problem
afflicting Chinese culture:
1. It advocated ‘superfluous ceremonies and
preached a morality of meek compliance’.
2. It recognised the family and not the individual
as the basic unit of society.
3. It upheld the inequality of the status of
individuals.
4. Stressed filial piety which made men
subservient and dependent.
5. Preached an orthodoxy of thought in total
disregard to freedom of thought and
expression.
Chen Duxiu and New Youth Magazine
• Articles in the magazine were written to
oppose conservatism and traditionalism in
China. Instead, it asked the youth to choose
fresh, vital elements from all the
civilisations of the world. Its guiding
principles were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To be independent and not servile
To be progressive and not conservative
To be aggressive and not retrogressive
To be cosmopolitan and not isolationist
To be utilitarian and not impractical
To be scientific and not visionary
Chen Duxiu and New Youth Magazine
• The magazine was hugely popular,
influencing and guiding a new culture of
intellectual thought.
• It inspired other intellectuals to found
magazines like Peking University students
who created ‘New Tide’ (Xinchao) in 1918
and ‘Weekly Critic’ (Mei-hou p’ing-lun).
• The significance of these publications was
in the fact that for the first time, they
encouraged national and social problems to
be openly debated in public.
‘There is an eager
thirst for ideas –
beyond anything
existing, I am
convinced, in the
youth of any other
country on earth’
American
philosopher John
Dewey on visiting
China between
1919-1921
Cai Yuan-pei & National University of Peking
• Cai Yuan-pei (蔡元培) became
Chancellor of the National University of
Peking (Peita) in 1916.
• It was a corrupt and conservative
institution. Professors were mostly
government officials and a degree was
seen as a stepping stone into
officialdom.
• Cai worked immediately to turn the
university into an efficient and forward
thinking institution.
Cai Yuan-pei & National University of Peking
• Cai set down three principles of
administration for the institution:
1. Re-evaluation of national culture by
scientific methods of research
2. A university education was not a
substitute for the old civil service
exams
3. Absolute academic freedom would
be allowed, freedom of expression
and rational thought encouraged.
Cai Yuan-pei & National University of Peking
• Cai’s changes transformed the university. It
soon became the heart of the New Culture
Movement. Scholars flocked to join the staff.
Chen Duxiu
• Chen Duxiu was made Dean of the School of
Letters and Hú Shih was made Professor of
Literature in 1917. Lǐ Dàzhāo (李大钊) was
another radical who was made Head
Librarian. His assistant was Mao Zedong
(毛泽东)!
• It was at the university that the direction of
the New Culture Movement was shaped and
debated.
Li Dazhao
Mao Zedong
Hú Shih – Pragmatism and Plain Language
• Hú Shih’s (胡适) contributions to the New
Culture Movement revolved around the
promotion of Chinese liberalism and
language reform.
• Influenced by the American John Dewey, Hú
advocated the idea of pragmatism (实验主义)
as a philosophy to evaluate traditional ethics
and ideas, rather than simply destroying all
traditional values.
• He preached gradual, bit-by-bit
improvements of society through studying
its problems and experimentation. He was
opposed to completely revolutionary ideas.
John Dewey
Hú Shih
Hú Shih – Pragmatism and Plain Language
• Despite his pragmatism, Hú was opposed to
Confucianism, coining the phrase: ‘Confucius
and Sons Incorporated’.
• He wrote many articles on the topic for New
Youth magazine, ranging from literature and
history to textual criticism and pedagogy – all
urged a re-evaluation of traditions.
• He argued that Confucianism viewed the idea
of truth as eternal and unchangeable – it was
therefore out of touch with the realities of
the modern world.
• He argued: ‘Truth is changeable according to
its utility based on experimentation’.
Hú Shih – Pragmatism and Plain Language
• Hú has mostly been remembered for his
campaign to replace classical Chinese
characters with a simplified, vernacular
language (白话/pai-hua) – making Chinese
easier to read for the ordinary person.
Other famous
writers include:
Mao Dun, Lao
She, Bing Xin and
Lu Xun (鲁迅). Lu
Xun’s essays and
• He argued that traditional Chinese language
fiction
was elitist and dead – ‘A dead language could
condemned
not produce a living literature’
Confucian culture.
See ‘Diary of a
Madman’
• These changes revolutionised literature and
literacy in China with the government
(狂人日记)
adopting the vernacular in all schools in 1920. and ‘The True
Historian John Fairbank argued that the
Story of Ah Q’
‘tyranny of the classics had been broken’.
(阿Q正传)
The May 4th Demonstrations (五四运动)
• These new tensions in society
exploded on May 4th 1919. On 28th
April, the Paris Peace Conference in
Versailles ruled that the province of
Shandong (山东) should be given over
to Japanese control.
• China had declared war on Germany
in 1917, in the hope of regaining the
province. Despite promises of ‘selfdetermination’ by US President
Woodrow Wilson, the conference
decided to give Shandong to Japan.
The May 4th Demonstrations (五四运动)
• Japan had first extended its control over
Shandong during WW1. The 21-Demands of
1915, agreed to by Yüan Shikai (洪宪皇帝),
gave Japan economic rights in the province.
• In 1917, Japan signed agreements with Russia
and Britain, gaining international acceptance
for the 21-Demands.
• In September 1918, the Chinese warlord
government signed a secret deal with Japan.
China received a 20 million Yen loan in return
for Japan being allowed to station troops and
build railways across the province.
Japanese Prime Minister
Okuma Shigenobu,
whose government
drafted the 21-Demands
The May 4th Demonstrations (五四运动)
• These agreements isolated China at the
Conference, resulting in Japan receiving
the province.
• This left Chinese faith in the West
shattered. It was a national humiliation.
• When the news was received in Peking,
a crowd of over 5000 students organised
a mass protest. Telegrams were sent to
the Chinese Delegation in Paris, urging
them to refuse to sign the Peace Treaty.
The May 4th Demonstrations (五四运动)
• Some protesters were arrested. In
response, a general strike was called
by all students.
• The strike soon spread to other
major cities – shopkeepers,
industrial workers and commercial
employees all joined the strike.
• A nationwide boycott of Japanese
goods was urged, and dockhands
refused to unload Japanese ships.
The May 4th Demonstrations (五四运动)
• The government was shocked. Under
pressure and facing economic collapse, it
dismissed the pro-Japanese members of
government including – Cao Rulin (曹汝
霖) who had signed the 21-Demands.
• It instructed the delegation in Paris to
make its own decision – it eventually
refused to sign the peace treaty.
• The May 4th Demonstrations served as a
‘catalyst’ for the intellectual revolution,
intensifying debate and leading to a split
in the movement.
Cao Rulin
Splits in the New Culture Movement
• The May 4th demonstrations led to a reevaluation of the New Culture Movement.
The Paris Peace Conference was viewed as a
betrayal of China by the West.
• Some intellectuals began to question the
utility of Western Ideas and looked to other
models of developments like Marxism,
Bolshevism and Anarchism.
• Others sought a return to traditional
Chinese Spiritualism whereas some argued
that Western Ideas were still the best –
despite the failure of liberalism at the Paris
Peace Conference.
Splits in the New Culture Movement
• The split in the intellectual movement was
between those that favoured ‘gradual social
reforms’ vs those that wanted ‘rapid
fundamental changes’.
Hú Shih
• Hú Shih, a pragmatist, cautioned against
talk of ‘isms’ and wanted people to study
problems rationally – ‘Drop-by-drop
improvements’. Hú would later support the
Kuomintang.
Chen Duxiu
• Chen Duxiu & Li Dazhao said ‘isms’ were
necessary to give direction and solve social
problems. They would both go on to
establish the Chinese Communist Party.
Li Dazhao
Conclusion – Significance of N.C.M
• The New Culture Movement fundamentally
changed the intellectual and culture
discourse of Chinese society.
• It introduced Western ideas and brought
China into the modern world.
Hú Shih
• May 4th led to a split in the movement.
Debate focused on which path of Western
development would be best for China.
• Some like Hú Shih, preferred liberalism and
gradual improvements. Others, like Chen
Duxiu, advocated Marxism and revolutionary
change.
Chen Duxiu
Conclusion – Significance of N.C.M
• These debates led to the establishment
the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 by
Chen Duxiu and Li Dazhao.
• Hú and the more pragmatic reforms
retreated into academic study but would
support the approach of the Kuomintang
in developing China gradually.
• The New Culture Movement thus defined
the intellectual discourse of China until
the Communist victory of 1949. Even
today, debate rages over the benefits and
nature of the movement.
Hú Shih
Chen Duxiu
Conclusion – Significance of N.C.M
• Liberals = viewed the movement as one of emancipation
from old thought, old ethics, old values and was an
affirmation of human rights. It was a ‘Chinese Renaissance’.
• Conservatives = viewed the movement as a corrupting
influence on the youth, lacking respect for traditionalism.
But was useful for stimulating nationalism.
• Radicals = like Marxists viewed the movement as one of
‘human liberation’. It was an anti-imperialist and anti-feudal
bourgeois-democratic revolution. Helped the proletariat
gain their independence and consciousness.
Conclusion – Achievements of N.C.M
1. Literary Revolution – Introduction of
plain language in 1920 and new
literature based on humanitarianism,
feminism, romanticism, realism and
nationalism. Instilled a social
consciousness in the public – ‘literary
revolution to revolutionary literature’
2. Acceptance of Foreign Ideas –
Western ideas became embedded in
Chinese culture, taking on a dynamic
of their own, resulting in new
ideologies like Chinese Communism.
Conclusion – Achievements of N.C.M
3. Intensification of Nationalism – The
movement stimulated the rise of a
‘Young China’. National confidence
rose as people underwent
‘psychological reconstruction’. It
sparked a new awareness in the
condition of China and a violent
reaction against foreign imperialism.
4. Destruction of Confucianism – No
other event, including the 1911
revolution, managed to deconstruct
traditional systems of belief in China
as much as the New Culture
Movement. In this sense, it was a
‘renaissance’.
Was the New Culture Movement a
‘revolution’?
• Whilst the New Culture Movement did create huge changes
in intellectual thought, it didn’t immediately change the
socio-political realities of life in China.
• It stirred up debates and problems without creating lasting
solutions or a new culture for everyone. China was stilled
ruled by warlords and a government who remained
unaffected by the changes and who held the keys to power.
• The key question for reformers was now what direction
would China take? Would it pursue evolutionary or
revolutionary change? And how could it defeat the warlords
to enact these changes?
Paper 3 - Exam Question 1 (2013)
• To what extent was the New Culture Movement (19151924), which included the 1919 May Fourth Movement, an
intellectual revolution that changed the course of Chinese
politics? (20 marks)
The events following the 1911 Revolution saw the establishment of the Republic followed by its betrayal by Yuan Shikai (Yuan Shih-k’ai). This was a
change of regime, but not a change in political or cultural attitudes. Candidates may first identify what they consider to be the events relating to the
New Culture Movement. These could include: weak central government; Japan’s 21 Demands in 1915; warlordism after the death of Yuan Shikai (Yuan
Shih-k’ai) in 1916; China’s relationship with the West during the First World War; the May Fourth Movement which began as an outburst by workers
and students in response to China’s treatment in the 1919 Treaty of Versailles. However, once the context has been established candidates will need
to analyse some of the ideas embodied in the New Culture Movement in order to fully answer the question. Intellectuals from Beijing University, such
as Cai Yuanpei (T’sai Yuan-p’ei), Hu Shi, Chen Duxiu (Ch’en Tu-hsiu), Li Dazhao (Li T-chao) and Lu Xun (Lu Hsun), were heavily involved in the New
Culture Movement. It was an intellectual revolution and literary revival which promoted the publication of magazines in the everyday language and
characters. Chen Duxiu’s (Ch’en Tu-hsiu’s) New Youth magazine and the other New Culture Movement publications favoured Western ideas such an
emphasis on youth, liberalism, democracy, socialism and Marxism. They criticized China’s traditional society and Confucian values and promoted
Western science and scholarship. The New Culture Movement aimed to develop a new cultural identity for China. The May Fourth Movement was a
political response to the Treaty of Versailles that was anti-imperialist, patriotic, favoured student and worker involvement in politics and the
establishment of unions. It was an urban political movement that was against the warlordism rife in China and favoured national unity. The May
Fourth Movement arose in the context of the New Culture Movement, but the terms are often used interchangeably to mean the whole intellectual
revolution. Some candidates may argue that the New Culture Movement/May Fourth Movement destroyed traditional Chinese values and society and
that Western political and cultural ideas dominated without much constructive gain. Other candidates may argue that the course of China politics was
changed by the New Culture Movement/May Fourth Movement in that this intellectual milieu gave rise to the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 and
Sun Yixian’s (Sun Yat-sen’s) revamped Guomindang (Kuomintang) in 1924. Although, in 1924 the First United Front between these parties was created,
the next twenty-five years was characterised by the conflict between them.
Answers that merely describe the 1919 May Fourth Movement without reference to the intellectual ideas embodied in the New Culture Movement
cannot score highly.
Paper 3 - Exam Question 2 (2010)
• To what extent was the May Fourth Movement (1919)
significant in determining the future of China? (20 marks)
The events following the 1911 Revolution saw the establishment of the Republic followed by its betrayal by Yuan
Shikai (Yuan Shih-k’ai). This was a change of regime, but not a change in political culture. The 1919 May Fourth
Movement saw a new type of political activism and gave its name to an intellectual, cultural and political movement,
which lasted into the 1920s and beyond. Politically, expect reference to student demonstrations, opposition to the
Treaty of Versailles, the impact of the Russian Revolution and Communist ideology, the creation of the Chinese
Communist Party and Sun’s reform of the Guomindang (Kuomintang). Intellectually, “destroying the past” included
the rejection of Confucianism, the debate between science and metaphysics, the vernacular language movement and
the emergence of writers like Lu Xun (Lu Hsun). Candidates will need to analyse some of the ideas embodied in the
May Fourth Movement in order to fully answer the question. The May Fourth Movement was a part of the wider New
Culture Movement, an intellectual revolution and literary revival which promoted the publication of magazines in the
everyday language and characters. It favoured Western ideas such as an emphasis on youth, liberalism and socialism
and it criticized China’s traditional society and Confucian values. The May Fourth Movement was also anti-imperialist,
patriotic, favoured student and worker involvement in politics and the establishment of unions. Candidates must
address “the past” in their evaluation. Some may argue that the act of creating a republic may not have had the
immediate effects in “constructing the future” that had been hoped, but that the foundations had been laid for what
was to follow. Others may see the real renaissance of China as stemming from the events of the May Fourth
movement in 1919 and the intellectual and cultural renaissance it came to represent. Some candidates may argue
that traditional Chinese values and society were destroyed and Western political ideas dominated without much
constructive gain. Other candidates may argue that the future directions of China were set by the May Fourth
Movement. Give credit to candidates who trace the significance forward, and expect evaluation in the context of
developments in China as far as at least the 1930s. Some candidates may go as far as 1949 so credit relevant analysis
and comment.
Paper 3 - Exam Question 3 (2007)
• “May 4th 1919 is a more significant date in Chinese history
than October 10th 1911.” How far do you agree with this
statement? (20 marks)
The events following October 10th 1911 saw the overthrow of the Qing (Ch’ing) and the establishment of the
Republic, which was followed by its betrayal by Yuan Shikai (Yuan Shih-kai). There was a change of regime, but not a
change in political culture. May 4th 1919 saw a new type of political activism and gave its name to an intellectual,
cultural and political movement, which may be dated back to the founding of New Youth in 1915 and lasted into the
early 1920s. Politically, expect reference to student demonstrations, opposition to the Treaty of Versailles, the impact
of the Russian Revolution and Communist ideology, the creation of the Chinese Communist Party and Sun’s reform of
the Guomindang (Kuomintang). Intellectually, it included the rejection of Confucianism, the debate between science
and metaphysics, the vernacular language movement and emergence of writers like Lu Hsun (Chou Shu-jen).
Credit candidates who argue for either date. Some may argue that the act of creating a republic may not have had the
immediate effects hoped, but that doing so lay the foundation for what was to follow. Others may see the real change
as stemming from the events of May 4th 1919 and the intellectual and cultural renaissance it came to represent.
[0 to 7 marks] for an account of events only.
[8 to 10 marks] for accounts which provide a clear description of events associated with the two
dates with some attempt to suggest which was the more significant.
[11 to 13 marks] for attempts to provide an analysis of the two events and their significance.
[14 to 16 marks] for a more detailed comparative analysis of both events in their political, cultural and
intellectual context.
[17+ marks] for well-structured comparative analysis which reaches a clear conclusion supported
by historical evidence.