GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE
OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Synthetic & analytical types of languages
Analytical verb-forms:
function word + full word
Synthetic verb-forms:
inflectional morphemes + inner flexions
GRAMMAR
- study of rules governing the use of a language
Prescriptive approach
Descriptive approach
In traditional terms: morphology and syntax.
MORPHOLOGY (Greek: morphé + logos)

how words are formed out of smaller units morphemes
Morpheme:
 smallest meaningful unit in a given language
(L. Bloomfield)

different realisations (morphs) in different context
(do, does, don´t)
Allomorphs = variants of a single morpheme, e.g.
pl. -s: /-z/,/-s/,/iz/
MORPHEMES
Free morphemes:
lexical & functional
Bound morphemes:
derivational & inflectional
WORD CLASSES / PARTS OF SPEECH
Full / content / notional words
Function words
NOUNS (Latin nomen = name)
= person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, activity,
state, event, …
Some nouns:

the same form as verbs

graphically different

phonetically different
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF NOUNS

noun-forming derivational affixes

the threefold inflectional sibilant

marking by determiners

fixed position in the sentence

substitutable by pronouns
CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS
PROPER NOUNS: names of individuals/group of indiv.
COMMON NOUNS
Countable : concrete (a book), abstract (an idea)
Uncountable: concrete (water), abstract (honesty)
CONCRETE NOUNS - definite objects
ABSTRACT NOUNS - quality, action, state, ideas, …
COLLECTIVE NOUNS - groups of people / things
MATERIAL NOUNS - no limiting modifiers, no pl.
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF NOUNS
1) SIMPLE NOUNS: no affixes
2) DERIVATIVE NOUNS:
prefixes: un-, mis-, pre-, for-; anti-, co-, ex-, il-, -in-,
non-, semi-, sub-, super-, vice-, …
suffixes (from Vs): -al, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ar, -er, -or,
-ion, -our, -ledge, -ment, -y, -ee;
(from Adj): -age, -ce, -cy, -ry, -ity, -ness,
(from Ns):-ation, -dom, -ess, -hood, -ian, -ism, -ist,-ship
-ing forms used as nouns
- diminutives: -let, -ing, -ie, -ock, -ette
- names of nationalities: -ian, -er, -ese, -an, -ish, -ite
3) COMPOUND NOUNS
N+N
Adj+N
Adv+N
V+N
Derivational CNs
CNs with -ing forms
CNs with a linking element
Other word formation processes:
conversion, blending, clipping, …
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER
Countable Ns: sg & pl
valley; country; BUT:
photo; BUT:

VOICING PLURAL: wife; BUT:

MUTATED PLURAL: Englishman; BUT:

-en PLURAL: child; BUT:

UNINFLECTED PLURAL: sheep; BUT:

FOREIGN PLURAL: phenomenon; analysis;
bacterium; BUT:
PLURAL IN COLLECTIVE NOUNS
- in sg. followed by Vs in sg.: foliage;
- in sg. followed by Vs in pl.: vermin;
- in sg. used with Vs in sg. or pl.: committee;
N with -s:
 V in pl.: scissors;

V in sg: mumps; news; BUT:

V in sg. or pl.: series; species;
PLURAL

IN COMPOUNDS
bedroom
postman
brother-in-law
passer-by
forget-me-not
OF NAMES OF NATIONS
Switzerland:
sg. a Swiss, pl. many Swiss, nation: the Swiss
the Netherlands (Holland):
sg. Dutchman, pl. Dutchmen, nation: the Dutch

COUNTABILITY
CNs: living beings or things with a definite form;
some abstract Ns; sg/pl; articles; numerals; How many?
UNs: sth can be measured but not counted,
without shape/limits; 1 form; the; no num.; How much?
 material, liquids, substances
 abstract qualities & ideas
UN in EN, BUT countable in Slovak
UN in sg BUT in pl.= kinds, extension, intensity
Both CN/UN
PARTITIVES

general: piece, bit, item

specific:ball, bar, cube, lump, sheet, slice ,…

„containers“: bag, box, cup, jar, packet, tube,…
Collective Ns followed by OF:
board, flock, swarm, bunch, crop, set, …
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF GENDER
Gender in OE & in ModE
masculine; feminine; neuter;


gender-forming suffix -ess
other suffixes: -ine, -er, -ette
gender expressed lexically:
- by different words
- by pronouns
- by words indicating the gender

Ns with a generic term & a pair:
horse; pig; sheep; monarch
COMMON GENDER
singer, journalist, neighbour, student, foreigner, …
= pronouns: male or female;
A pet: F = cat, parrot; M = dog, horse, canary
Personification (in poetry):
MASCULINE GENDER:



Ns - strength, inflexibility, resistance, necessity
names of winds, rivers, mountains
winter, the sun, anger, love, murder, war, death,
fatherland
FEMININE GENDER



Ns denoting tenderness, feableness, loveliness
names of universities; countries, cities, & towns
denoting political or economic units
(indicating geographical units = neuter)
the moon, the earth, mercy, charity, faith, hope,
modesty, justice, nature, luck, religion, ships, car
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF CASE
OE = 4 cases: N, G, D, Acc.
ModE:
 the common case = uninflected form
 the possessive/genitive case = inflected by:
-´s in sg:
a girl´s book;
my mother-in-law´s book;
Peter and Paul´s quarrel;
-´ in pl: girls´ school;
BUT: children´s toys; Dickens´/ Dickens´s novel;
DEPENDENT GENITIVE

proper names

personal nouns

personal indefinite pronouns

names of animals

collective nouns

geographical names

institutional names
DEPENDENT GENITIVE

expressions of time, space, weight, distance

names of seasons/months/days

with words: sun, moon, earth, world

with words: ship, boat, vessel

with personification (in poetry)

fixed expressions
THE ABSOLUTE / ELYPTICAL GENITIVE
= without a following noun:

when it is clear what / who we are talking about

when referring to work-places, shops, banks, houses
THE DOUBLE GENITIVE
= when a noun is determined by:




articles
numerals
some
demonstrative pronouns
THE OF-CONSTRUCTION / OF-GENITIVE
refers to:






things when we cannot form a compound
parts of things
abstract nouns
partitives
geographical notions
other nouns
DETERMINERS
= words used in front of common nouns
= determine (affect) the meaning of Ns
CENTRAL DETERMINERS = mutually exclusive
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
articles
possessive
demonstrative
assertive; nonassertive
negative
universal
dual
WH-determiners
PREDETERMINERS
= precede the required CD in a N phrase:




quantifying
fractional
intensifying
multiplying
POSTDETERMINERS
= follow the required CD in a N phrase





cardinal numerals
ordinal numerals
many, much & its relatives
the forms of other
the phrasal quantifiers
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: the
= from OE demonstrative pronoun sé
- particular object; sth that is known; specific or definite reference;
- C in sg.; C in pl.; U; the definite object;
- we know exactly from the context;
- unique things
- political parties; the whole family; nouns of nationalities;
- in proverbs
- ordinal numerals; superlative degree – adj.; substantivized adj.
- with some places, even if we don´t know exactly which
- with: same, very, right, wrong; the weather;
- some, many, none, most + preposition of;
- abstract Ns modified by an attribute in post-position
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: a / an
= from OE numeral án (one)
- meaning “one“: Ns denoting time, measure, weight, numerals
- people or things in general
- all the representatives of the class = “every“
- Ns introduced for the 1st time - CNs
- object belonging to a class = “some, any“
- with jobs, Ns of nationalities; some illnesses;
- proper Ns (member of family; literature, art)
- Ns: period, population, distance, height, salary + OF constr.
- after “there is“, “what a ...“, “such a ...“
- personal names modified by “certain“
THE ZERO ARTICLE
= shows that Ns are used in a general sense
- with pl CNs in general statements
- abstract Ns; UNs of material
- some illnesses; illnesses in -s
- activities + sport games
- in general: names of periods of a year, months, days, holidays
- languages; names of subjects; names of food;
- names of persons; forms of addressing people; titles + names;
- Ns expressing relationship
- in certain prepositional phrases
THE USE OF ARTICLES
No article:
Articles:
I like spring.
It happened in the spring of 1968.
It was spring.
It was a cold spring.
Day is meant for work,
He won´t forget the day when...
night for sleep.
The night was warm.
to be in prison (= prisoner)
to be in the prison (= building)
to leave school/at school (study) to leave the school; a good school
Is dinner ready?
The dinner we had today was ...
speak French
use the French language at work
Dickens, the great novelist, ...
It´s a Dickens novel. /a Picasso
THE USE OF ARTICLES
NO ARTICLE:
THE DEFINITE ARTICLE:
Africa, Asia, Europe
the Antarctica, the Continent (Europe)
England, Germany
the UK, the Vatican, the Ukraine
the Pacific (Ocean), the Black Sea, the Nile
Lake Ontario, Lake Geneva
the Ontario (no: lake)
Mount Everest, Mont Blanc,
the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau,
Elbrus, Snowdon, Ben Nevis
the Alps, the Himalayas,
Malta, Sicily, Madagaskar
the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man
groups of islands: the Bahamas, the Azores, the Canaries
the Gobi (Desert), the Sahara
London / Westminster Bridge
the Golden Gate Br., the Tower Br.
PRONOUNS
point out objects / qualities without naming them
Specific:
 personal
 possessive
 demonstrative
 reflexive
 interrogative
 elative
 reciprocal
Indefinite:
 universal
 partitive
 quantifying
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
=refer to the person speaking, spoken to, spoken about
Gram. categories of P, N, C, G – 3rd sg.
Common case is replaced by:
 subjective case

objective case
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
=refer to parts of the body & personal belongings
Gram. categories: P, N, G
2 forms:
 the dependent / attribute form
(possessive determiners)

the independent / the nominal form
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

express the number contrast

point at what is nearer or farther in time & space
Such = of this/that kind;
such as = for example
Same = always with “the“
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
= indicate - action expressed by V passes back to S
Gram. categories: P, N, G – 3rd sg.







as direct or indirect O
after a preposition;
after “by“ meaning alone;
as part of the predicative of the V to be
in fixed phrases
to emphasize sth.
used with reflexive Vs
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS
= form questions; always precede the V
Who: 3 case-forms - S; O; G/Possessive (determiner);
 only for persons
What:
 for things, for an activity, to ask for a person´s
profession, character, etc., in idiomatic expressions
Which: choice among a certain number of sth
 for things & persons; sg. / pl; s or O;
 often followed by an of-phrase
Compound interrogatives = used for emphasis
RELATIVE PRONOUNS
= point out back to a N/Pron. = antecedent. Forms:
 personal
 non-personal
That: for persons/things in restrictive relative clauses
- left out of a sentence; no preposition;
- after the superlative; after most indefinite pronouns;
after opening phrases; antecedent = person & thing
What is used when an antecedent is not expressed
Compound relative pronouns
Relative as: after such & after the same (also: that)
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS


express mutual action or relation
the subject = always in pl.
Each other implies only two
One another = two or more persons
The common case
The genitive case
UNIVERSAL PRONOUNS
ALL: persons/things; in sg/pl; = unity
 as a pronoun meaning: everything
 as an adjective meaning: the whole of;
 in some expressions
EACH: 2 or more persons/things = separately
 a limited number; after of & at the end
 pronoun & determiner
EVERY: more than 2 = meaning: altogether
- unlimited Nr; after: nearly, not; only as Determ.
- in idiomatic phrases; Compounds;
BOTH: with pl N & pl V;
PARTITIVE PRONOUNS
SOME: determ./nominal; CNs & UNs; compounds
 indef. quant./Nr; contrast; particular but unidentified
 affirmative; interrog.=positive reply; before numerals
ANY: no matter who/which/what; CNs & UNs; comp.
 interrog.; negative; indirect quest.; condit. cl.; adv.
NO: determiner function; “not any, not a“; CNs + UNs;
Compounds = nominal fun., sg V; replaced by any-;
NONE = nominal function; sg & pl; of-constructions
THE OTHER, ANOTHER, THE OTHERS, OTHERS;
EITHER:1/the other of 2; both; NEITHER
QUANTIFYING PRONOUNS
MANY, FEW: pl., used with CNs
MUCH, LITTLE: sg., used with UNs
 in affirm. = a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of,
MANY, MUCH: interrog. & neg.; MUCH= adverbially
FEW, LITTLE: neg.meaning; A FEW, A LITTLE: posit.
SEVERAL: in pl.; determ. & nom., with of-construction
ENOUGH: with CNs + UNs; determ. & nom. function;
ONE:
- numerical, replacive (word-substitute, not with UNs)
- indefinite = “people in general“, after WHICH;
ADJECTIVES / MODIFIERS
= limit or qualify words by describing them
According to the position in a phrase or sentence:
Attributive adjectives
Predicative adjectives
Constructions with comparison:
as … as
not as … as
not so … as
than
GRADABILITY OF ADJECTIVES
GRADABLE (with words: very, too, enough)
 the positive
 the comparative
 the superlative
2 types:
synthetic (by inflections)
analytical (by gram. particles)
NON-GRADABLE (absolute in their meaning)
Irregular (suppletive) forms
Spelling rules
ADJECTIVES
According to their meaning:
QUALITATIVE/descriptive:
size, shape, colour, mental & physical qualities
RELATIVE:
through their relation to materials, place, time, action
SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES: wholly or partially
Pre-modifiers x post-modifiers
Word order of adjectives:
O – S – A – Sh – C – O – M (past part.)
MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES

primary / simple

secondary converted

derivative:
prefixes: pre-, hyper-, neg.: im-, in-, il-, ir-, un-, dis-;
suffixes:-ic, -y, -less, -ish, -ful, -able, -ible, -ive, -ant,
-ent, -ous, -en-, -an, -al, -ly, -like, -some, -ward;

compound:
N+Adj, N+pres. part., N+past part., Adj+Adj,
Adj+N+-ed, N+N+-ed, Num+N+-ed, Adv+N+-ed;
ADVERBS



express some circumstances that attend an action,
state, or point out some characteristic features of an
action or a quality
answer questions:
HOW? WHEN? WHERE? HOW OFTEN?
TO WHAT EXTENT? IN WHAT ORDER?
can modify:
Vs, Adj., Indefinite Pron., Other Adv., Ns, sentences;
The modifying adverb is usually an intensifier.
ADVERBS
According to their structure:

simple

derivative

compound

composite
Adverbial phrases
ADVERBS
According to their meaning = adverbs of:

manner

place & direction

time

frequency

degree, measure & quantity
GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS
GRADABLE:
 synthetic
 analytical
Irregular forms of comparison
NON-GRADABLE
2 forms of adverbs;
the same forms of adverbs without -ly & adjectives;
POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE
- manner:




Look at this photo carefully.
It snowed heavily.
Mary angrily slammed the door.
Quietly, he moved towards the door.
- degree:



quite good
quite well
I quite like it.
POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE
- place and direction:




She read quietly in the library all the afternoon.
I went to London by train.
Outside it was cold but indoors it was warm.
She lives in a small house in a village outside Norwich
in Norfolk
POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE
- of time:
 We went to the theatre yesterday.
 Yesterday we went to the theatre.
 I have just finished.
 He is still working.
 He still works.
 Have you finished yet?
 No, I haven´t finished yet.
POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE
- frequency:
He seldom smiles at her.
 Sometimes we go to the cinema.
 Do you usually have cream in your coffee?
 I get paid on Fridays usually.
OFTEN:
Do you come here often?
I don´t come here often.

VERBS = word class (in syntax: clause element)
Grammatical categories of Vs:
tense, aspect, voice, mood
A sentence:
 single verb: finite verb phrase (VP) = simple
 cluster of Vs: VP = complex
A complex VP
= up to 4 auxiliaries in front of the main V
BASIC TYPES OF THE COMPLEX FINITE VP

modal

perfective

progressive

passive
VERBS
According to the function within a VP
3 classes of Vs:
 primary auxiliary Vs
 modal auxiliary Vs
 lexical (main, full) Vs
According to the finiteness:
 finite V forms
 non-finite V forms
VERBS
According to morphological forms:
 regular Vs
 irregular Vs
REGULAR VERBS = 4 morphological forms:
 the base form
 the -ed form
 the -s form
 -ing form
IRREGULAR VERBS
= either 5 or 3 forms, classified into:

3 forms alike

3 forms different

past tense equals -ed participle

V base equals -ed participle

V base equals the past tense
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS
=assist the main V to express gram. contrasts
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB TO BE:
unique, 8 forms; (un)contracted negative forms
2 functions:
 as an aspect auxiliary for the progressive
 as a passive auxiliary
Forms:
present, past, present perfect, past perfect, future,
future perfect, present progressive, past progressive
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB
TO HAVE:
Forms:
 base, -s, past, -ing, (-ed participle only as a lexical V)
 (un)contracted negative
present, past, present perfect, past perfect, future,
future perfect;
HAVE x HAVE GOT = interchangeable.
Questions in BrE = by inversion, in AmE = by operators
PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB
TO DO
Forms:
 present, -s, past,
 (un)contracted negative
 -ing, ...
Used in:
 negated imperative,
 questions, tag questions,
 emphatic or persuasive constructions,
 inversion caused by introductory words
(negative adverbs: never, hardly, seldom)
MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS






the speaker´s attitude toward the action or state
indicated by the infinitive
defective, not inflected
followed by bare infinitive
cannot form imperative
do not have infinitive forms
negative & interrogative = without auxiliaries
MODAL CAN
I CAN / COULD (+ periphrastic form)
CAN = ability, capability;
CANNOT/CAN´T = inability, incapability
CAN expresses:
 physical & mental abilities
 asking & giving permission
 with Vs with perception
 possibility
MODAL CAN, COULD
CAN´T + perfect infinitive (have + -ed participle)
COULD + perfect infinitive
COULD NOT + perfect infinitive

referring to the past
CAN + passive infinitive (to be & past participle)
CAN´T + passive infinitive

translated into Slovak: možno, dať sa
MODAL MAY, MIGHT
I MAY / MIGHT (+ periphrastic form)
 permission
 in questions MAY = more formal than CAN
MIGHT in more polite requests
MUSTN´T
 used in the negative
 stronger prohibition than MAY NOT
MAY
 possibility (= it is possible)
 + present infinitive: expect/guess about pres./future
MODAL MAY, MIGHT
MAY + present infinitive
 about present/future happenings
MAY/MIGHT + perfect infinitive
 expect/guess about past happening
MIGHT
 expresses reproach
MIGHT + perfect infinitive
 action not carried out in the past
MAY
 as a subjunctive auxiliary (expresses wish)
MODAL MUST
I MUST (to have to)
= to be obliged to/ to be compelled to
 inescapable obligation, duty or necessity
NEEDN´T, DON´T HAVE TO
 absence of obligation
MUSTN´T
 a strong way of forbidding to do sth.
MODAL MUST
MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO = interchangeable


obligation comes from the speaker
stronger obligation for other persons
MUST in notices, documents, commands
MUST in pressing invitation and emphatic advice
MUST + present infinitive
 deduction refers to the present
MUST + perfect infinitive
 deduction about the past
MODAL SHALL

volition (mostly for 1st sg.)

in questions = obligation or suggestion

insistence, threat

in legal documents = in 2nd, 3rd person
MODAL SHOULD
SHOULD

in reported speech

in offers, suggestions, requests

escapable obligation, duty

probability

after if & in case = suggests a less strong possibility

recommendations from an outside authority

our own subjective opinion=connected: If I were you
MODAL OUGHT TO
OUGHT TO

more objective

talk about laws, duties
SHOULD/OUGHT TO + perfect infinitive

action not carried out
MODAL WILL
WILL
 prediction about the future
 about the present
 giving orders
 habitual predictive meaning in conditional
 willingness to do sth.
 intention to make promises or threats
 to make requests or to give orders
WILL + perfect infinitive
 logical deduction about the past
MODAL WOULD
WOULD






past form of will
in reported speech
about past habits + characteristic behaviour
(not with state V)
as conditional
more polite request than WILL
after I wish / If only I ... to express willingness
MARGINAL MODALS / SEMI-MODALS
NEED





in the negative
Yes/No questions
after negative adverbs (hardly, seldom, rarely)
in formal style, expressing doubts
in informal use = ordinary (lexical) V form
NEEDN´T + perfect infinitive
 sb did it but it was not necessary
MARGINAL DARE, USED TO
DARE
 in questions & negatives
 with bare infinitive or a full V
 in informal style
 the negative DAREN´T:
YOU DARE! or: DON´T YOU DARE! = to discourage
I DARE SAY = probably
USED TO
 past habit = in simple past; also with state V
USED NOT or USEDN´T:
 in the negative & in questions
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE:
THE ACTIVE VOICE
The clause with transitive Vs contains:
3 grammatical elements: S+V+O
3 semantic units: A + P (Action) + G
SUBJECT = AGENT if V is in the active voice
OBJECT = GOAL
If the WO (= an important element in EN) – change:
= both grammatical & semantic roles of Ns change
In SK: if the WO is reversed, the roles remain clear.
THE PASSIVE VOICE
= the subject - not interpreted as the agent
AGENT
preposition by, or unexpressed (if unknown/unimport.)
Emphasis = on the action, not on people performing it.
Sth that the AGENT perform the action = prep. with
After ditransitive Vs:
either OBJECT = SUBJECT of a passive clause
THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE
= to be + -ed participle












present simple: John is helped by Mary.
present progressive
present perfect
simple past
past progressive
past perfect
simple future
future perfect
present infinitive
perfect infinitive
-ing form
perfect -ing form
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF ASPECT
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reflects the way in which the verb action is
“regarded“ or „experienced“ with respect to time
is closely connected in meaning with tense
Present perfective: action continuing up to the pres.
He has been at school for two hours.
(probably still there).
This meaning of current relevance contrasts with past
tense meaning:
He was at school an hour ago. (Now he is out.)
TWO TYPES OF ASPECTUAL CONTRAST
1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT
2) THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) ASPECT
1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT
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is associated with time orientation+ various time
indicators: for, already, since, so far, lately, recently,
up to now, how long, ever...
1.1 THE PRESENT PERFECT
= have + -ed participle
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“past happening related to present time“
past events with results in the present time
indefinite events in a period leading up to the present
time
habit in a period leading up to the present time
state leading up to the present time
1.2 THE PAST PERFECT
= had + -ed participle
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“past in the past“
conjun. after, when = which event took place earlier
describing one event following another in the past
event in -when clause = completed before the event
in the past simple started
in reported speech after past Vs
in events looking back from a point in the past
to express an unrealized hope, wish
1.3 THE FUTURE PERFECT
= will + perfect infinitive
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at a certain time in the future sth will be completed /
achieved (often used with by & time reference)
2 THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT
= to be + -ing form
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refers to activity in progress, & therefore suggests
that:
a) the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration)
b) it need not be complete
2.1 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE
= am/is/are + -ing
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actions in progress at the moment of speaking
(now, just)
temporary situation, activity is taking place in the
present time & will continue for a limited period
future reference with Vs of motion
(arrive, come, go, leave)
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activities planned for the future
repeated actions – unexpectedly/annoyingly
(always, constantly)
2.2 PAST PROGRESSIVE
= was/were + -ing
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an action in progress at a specified time in the past
an action started before the event in the past simple
& was in progress when the event in the PS occured
two parallel actions were in progress at the same
time (while)
progress with adverbials beginning with all
(all morning, all day, all night)
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repeated actions
the background for a narrative in the past
2.3 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
= has/have been +ing
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an activity taking place in the recent period up to the
present
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started in the past & continues up to the present &
possibly into the future (since, for)
2.4 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
= had been + -ing
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describes an activity looking back from the past
2.5 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE
= shall/will be + -ing
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an activity going on at a particular time or over
a particular period in the future (we mention the
future time)
future activity is the result of a previous decision
(arrangement)
planned activities in the future
asking (politely) about people´s plans
2.6 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE
= shall/will + have been + -ing
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activity leading up to time in the future.
Usually mentioned – both the particular point
in the future (on Saturday, soon, next year)
& the period of time until this point
(for a year, for 20 minutes)
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF MOOD
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indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual
status of prediction
THE INDICATIVE/DECLARATIVE MOOD
 facts of which the speaker = relatively confident
THE IMPERATIVE MOOD
 commands, instructions
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2nd sg/pl (no distinction) = the base of the V
1st & 3rd sg/pl = periphrastically
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
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replaced by other constructions in contemporary EN
MANDATIVE SUB.: lack of regular concord btw S + FV
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in subord. that-clause after Vs in the main clause:
advise, ask, beg, decide, demand, desire, insist, intend,
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after Adj (anxious, determined) with a personal S or
(essential, important, urgent) & impersonal it-constr.
after Ns (demand, intention, order, request,
suggestion)
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
The FORMULAIC Subjunctive
 in certain set expressions
The WERE-Subjunctive
 hypothetical
 conditional & wish clauses
GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF TENSE
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relates the time of the action, or state of affairs
referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance.
Time = extra-ling. notion (past, present, future time)
Tense = ling. category (no identity between time & tense)
EN: PRESENT & PAST
FUTURE: by modals, simple present & progressive
To be + infinitive: formal arrang., instructions, orders
 in if-clauses: sth takes place first before sth else
Be about to, be on the point of:refer to the next m.
Be due to: refers to scheduled times
PRESENT TENSE
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the state present: timeless statements, eternal truths
the habitual present: repeated events & adv. of freq.
the instantaneous present = with dynamic Vs
the historic present=past time narrative, event
described vividly
referring to future time:
action in future & time adverbials
in conditional & temporal clauses:
if, unless, after, before , when, as soon as
PAST TENSE
- denotes definite past time, adv. referring to the past
 (specific) events
 states
 habitual action
 attitudinal past = reflects a tentative state of mind
(= more polite effect than by using the present)
 hypothetical past = contrary to the speaker´s beliefs
(if, wish)
 indirect (reported) speech (so-called back-shift)
NON-FINITE VERB FORMS
1) THE INFINITIVE
Forms:
present infinitive active, present infinitive passive,
present progressive infinitive active, perfect/past
infinitive active, perfect/past infinitive passive,
perfect/past progressive infinitive active
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bare infinitive:
modals, let, make, had better, would rather, Vs of perc.
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to-infinitive:
some lexical Vs, to be + adj., Vs + Obj., indic. purpose;
NON-FINITE VERB FORMS
2) THE ING-FORM
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-ing participle
in progressive aspect or as participial adjective
gerund
can take place of V or N: UN, CN, after the Genitive
Forms:
present active, present passive, past/perfect active,
past/perfect passive
Used after:
Vs of (dis)liking, some lexical Vs, Adj + prep, phrasal Vs
NON-FINITE VERB FORMS
3) THE -ed FORM
Used:
 to form the passive (to be + -ed)
 to express perfective aspect (have/had + -ed)
 to begin a subordinate clause: Provided that…