P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
1
Physics 120 Lab Manual
Spring 2014
Drum
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
2
Physics 120 Lab Manual
Contents
Subject
Page
Lab 1
Free-fall
3
Lab 2
Motion
5
Lab 3A
Newton’s 2nd Law
6
Lab 3B
Forces and Collisions
7
Lab 4
Cannonball Range
8
Lab 5
Energy Conservation
10
Lab 6
Conservation of Momentum
12
Lab 7
Force Vectors
14
Lab 8
Buoyancy
16
Lab 9
Absolute Zero
18
Lab 10
Specific Heat
20
Lab 11
Latent Heat
21
Lab 12
The Oscillator
22
Lab 13
The Pendulum
24
Lab 14
Speed of Sound
26
Lab 15
String Resonance
27
Lab 16
Statistics
28
Lab 17
Galileo and the Pendulum
32
App. 1
Lab report format
33
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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Lab 1: Free-fall
Name: _________________________
1. Theory

Stamp
An object is in free-fall if the only force on it is gravity.
2. Free-fall data (Falling Ball)
2.1
Use the apparatus to find x as a function of t.
Table 2.1
x (cm)
x vs. t for a Falling Ball
t1 (s)
t2 (s)
Avg. t
5
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
100
120
Graph x vs. t2 on the computer.
Make a fit line to the graph.
Check with your instructor before printing the graph.
t2
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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3. Analyzing the Data
3.1
For a free-falling ball write down the theoretical formula relating x to t2:
_______________________________________________________
3.2
From the computer graph, write the equation of the fit line to your data:
_______________________________________________________
3.3
Circle each quantity in the top equation and draw a line to the corresponding
quantity in the bottom equation.
From this, write down your experimental value for the acceleration:
a = ________ m/s2
3.4
g = ________ m/s2
How do you know from looking at the graph that the ball is in free-fall?
Draw below what the graph would look like if there was a lot of air resistance.
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 2: Motion Graphs
5
Name: _________________________
1. Matching a Position Graph
1.1
Open the file:
Stamp
C:\Program Files\DataStudio\Library\Physics\P01 Position and Time.
1.2
Your instructor will tell you how to set up the program and will check to make
sure the device is working properly.
1.3
Try to move so as to match the graph shown. Do this ONLY ONCE without
practicing. Print out the result. Let everyone in the group do this. Each
person’s printout should have only his or her own attempt on it.
Check with your instructor before continuing.
1.4
Now look at the graph and determine where you didn’t match the graph. Circle
each area where the graphs don’t match and label it. Explain exactly why your
motion didn’t match for each region.
Check with your instructor before continuing.
1.5
Do several tries and erase all but the best one. Print it out, then let someone
else in the group try. Do this until everyone in the group has his or her best
graph printed out.
Check with your instructor before continuing.
2. Matching a Velocity Graph
2.1
Follow exactly the same procedure, but with file
C:\Program Files\DataStudio\Library\Physics\P02 Velocity and Time.
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 3A: Newton’s 2nd Law
6
Name: _________________________
1. Predicting acceleration
1.1
Stamp
A cart on a frictionless track is attached to a weight. The
cart’s mass is M and the weight’s mass is m.
Draw two free-body diagrams: one for the cart and
one for the weight. Don’t include friction or air
resistance.
M
Write FNET = ma for the cart in terms of M, m, g, and
the tension T.
m
Write FNET = ma for the hanging weight in terms of M,
m, g, and T.
Eliminate T and solve for a.
2. Measuring F and a
2.1
You instructor will explain how you will measure a.
For each of the weights in the table below, find your expected acceleration and
then measure a.
Table 2.1 Acceleration for Different Weights
m (kg)
aEXPECTED
aMEASURED
% Difference
.050
.100
.150
.200
% Diff 
aMEASURED  aEXPECTED
100
aEXPECTED
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 3B: Forces and Collisions
7
Name: _________________________
1. Collisions
1.1
Stamp
Cart A is initially going to
the right. It collides with
cart B. Force sensors
measure the force applied
to each cart during the collision.
B
A
Fill in the “Predicted” column with a >, =, or
< symbol.
Table 1.1 Action and Reaction
Masses
Bumper
A goes
B goes
FA ? FB
Predicted
mA = mB
Spring
right
left
mA = mB
Spring
right
stopped
mA = mB
Spring
rt. slow
rt. fast
mA > mB
Spring
right
left
mA > mB
Spring
right
stopped
mA > mB
Spring
rt. slow
rt. fast
mA = mB
Clay
right
left
mA = mB
Clay
right
stopped
mA = mB
Magnet
right
left
mA = mB
Magnet
right
stopped
1.2
FA
FB
FA ? FB
Observed
Open the file: C:\Program Files\DataStudio\Library\Physics\P12Tug_of_war.
Find the maximum force on each cart during the collision. We will say the
forces are equal if they differ by no more than 10%.
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Explain any differences between predictions and observations.
8
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 4: Cannonball Range
9
Name: _________________________
1. Theory

The range of a cannonball depends on the angle of launch.
Stamp
2. Range vs. Angle
2.1
Take shots to cover the range of 10 to 75.
Table 3.1 Range vs. Angle
Angle ()
Range
Range
(1 click)
(2 clicks)
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
Graph your data on the computer. Put both sets of data on one graph.
Print the graph. By hand, draw a smooth line through your data points.
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
2.2
10
Place a target at a distance you know you can hit.
Using your graph, predict the angle needed to hit this target.
Distance to target: ________ cm
Predicted angle: ________ 
Now try to hit the target. How close were you? D: __________ cm
3. Accuracy
3.1
Set your angle to 45 and find the range for 24 shots (1 click). Measure the
range as accurately as possible.
Table 3.1 Variation of Range
Find the average of all 24 shots. Average range: _________ cm
Cross off the lowest 4 ranges and the highest 4 ranges. Write down the lowest
and highest ranges remaining.
Low: __________ cm
High: __________ cm
Take half of the difference between the low and the high. This is the
uncertainty in the range.
Express your range in “plus-or-minus” notation.
Range = __________  __________ cm
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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Lab 5: Energy
Name: _________________________
1. Definitions

The formulas for kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy
(PE) are:
KE  (1/ 2)mv2
Stamp
PE  mgy
1.1
Open DataStudio
1.2
Write a formula expressing PE in terms of m, g, and x:
2. Energy
2.1
On the left-hand graph below, draw a plot of what you expect a graph of
the PE to look like as the cart goes up and down the track.
On the right-hand graph below, draw a plot of what you expect a graph of
the KE to look like as the cart goes up and down the track.
0.5
0.5
PE (J)
KE (J)
0
0
-0.5
-0.5
0
1
2
2
3
t (s)
4
5
0
1
2
2
Graph 2.1: PE and KE of a Coasting Cart
3
t (s)
4
5
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Find : ________ 
2.2
Weigh your cart. m: ________ (kg)
2.3
Get a good run for position vs. time. Check with your instructor. Erase all but
the best run.
2.4
Your instructor will show you how to use the calculator function.
2.3

To graph PE, click on the calculator icon and enter the formula for PE.

To graph KE, click on the calculator icon and enter the formula for KE.

To graph E, click on the calculator icon and enter the formula for E.
Draw graphs of PE and KE on graph 2.1 using solid lines. How are the two
graphs different? Explain any differences in your lab report.
Print out your graphs of PE, KE, and total E.
3. Energy loss
3.1
Find the total energy for the beginning and end of the run.
EINITIAL _________ J
What % of the original energy was lost?
% lost 
EFINAL _________ J
Where did it go?
E FINAL  E INITIAL
 100
E INITIAL
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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Lab 6: Conservation of Momentum
Name: ____________________
1. Collisions
1.1
In this lab we will measure the momentum and kinetic energy of
two colliding carts. The formulas you will need are:


p  mv
Stamp
KE  (1 / 2)mv 2
We will find p and KE of both carts combined before the collision
and after the collision, and then find the % lost:
% lost 
Final  Initial
 100%
Initial
Open the file:C:\Program Files\DataStudio\Library\Physics\P38Mod2.
Print the graph only from trial 1.
Magnetic bumpers: 1. Equal mass cars, one car at rest.
2. Unequal mass cars, one car at rest.
Clay bumpers:
3. Equal mass cars, cars in motion towards each other.
“Explosion:”
4. Unequal mass cars.
Trial 1
m
v
p
Cart A
Initial
Cart B
Cart A
Final
Cart B
Trial 1
Tot. Initial
Tot. Final
% Diff
p
KE
KE
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Trial 2
14
m
v
p
KE
p
KE
p
KE
Cart A
Initial
Cart B
Cart A
Final
Cart B
Trial 2
p
KE
Tot. Initial
Tot. Final
% Diff
Trial 3
m
v
Cart A
Initial
Cart B
Cart A
Final
Cart B
Trial 3
p
KE
Tot. Initial
Tot. Final
% Diff
Trial 4
m
v
Cart A
Initial
Cart B
Cart A
Final
Cart B
Trial 4
Tot. Initial
Tot. Final
% Diff
p
KE
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 7: Force Vectors
15
Name: _________________________
1. Theory


For an object in equilibrium, FNET  0
Stamp
2. Two forces
2.1
Put hangers on the table at 0 and 180. Put 100g on m1.
Find the range for m2 at equilibrium. mMIN = _____ g
mMAX = _____ g
3. Three forces
3.1
Put hangers on the table with 100 g at 0 and 180 g at 140.
What mass and angle on the third hanger do you predict will create
equilibrium? Draw a free-body diagram; show your work. Check your
prediction with the instructor.
PREDICTED = _______
MEASURED = _______
% difference _______
mPREDICTED = _______
mMEASURED = _______
% difference _______
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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4. Three forces
4.1
Put hangers on the table at 0 and 120. Put 100g on m1 and 150g on m2.
Adjust the mass and angle of m3 until you get equilibrium.
m3 = _______
3 = _______
What is the net force? Draw a free-body diagram and show all your work.
FNET = __________
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 8: Buoyancy
17
Name: _________________________
1. Theory
1.1
The theoretical buoyant force is given by FB  gV



Stamp
ρ = 1000 kg/m3 for water
g = 9.8 m/s2
V is the volume of the object in m3
To measure the buoyant force, compare the weight of an object in and out of
the water: FB  WOUT  WIN
The volume for various shapes is
4
V ( sphere )  R 3
3
V (cylinder )  R 2 h
V (block )  LWH
For this lab, use meters, kilograms, and newtons.
2. Predicting Buoyancy
2.1
For each object, measure the dimensions and calculate V and FB.
Table 2.1 Theoretical Buoyant Force
Object
Dimensions (m)
V (m3)
FB (Theory) (N)
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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3. Measuring Buoyancy
3.1
Calibrate your force sensor. Your instructor will explain this. Find the buoyant
force of various objects. Compare to the predictions.
% Difference 
Measured  Theoretical
 100%
Theoretical
Table 3.1 Measured Buoyant Force
Object
WIN (N)
WOUT (N)
FB (Measured)
Table 3.2 Summary
Object
FB (Theory)
FB (Measured)
% Diff
4. Capacity of a boat
4.1
Find the maximum buoyant force the water could exert on your “boat” (really
it’s a tuna can). Show your work on a separate sheet.
Use this to predict the maximum load of your boat.
4.3
Load up your boat until it sinks. How much could it hold?
Predicted Capacity: __________
Measured Capacity: __________
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 9: Absolute Zero
19
Name: _________________________
1. Theory

The ideal gas law is PV  nRT , where T is measured from
absolute zero.
Stamp
2. Constant-volume thermometer
2.1
Draw a picture of the setup here.
2.2
Immerse the bulb in hot water and measure T and P.
Table 2.1 Pressure of air at different temperatures
T (C)
Absolute P (cm Hg)
Graph your data. Draw a fit line and extend it back to P = 0.
At what T does P = 0? What is the significance of this?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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3. Constant-pressure thermometer
3.1
Find V for your gas at various T’s.
Table 3.1 Volume of air at different temperatures
T (C)
h (cm)
Total V (cm3)
Graph your data. Draw a fit line and extend it back to V = 0.
At what T does V = 0? What is the significance of this?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
4. Questions
4.1
Would V really be zero at absolute zero? Why or why not? How about P?
4.2
Of the two measurements of absolute zero, which do you trust the most?
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 10: Specific Heat & Abs. Zero
21
Name: _________________________
1. Theory


Heat energy (Q) is related to temperature by Q  mcT
The ideal gas law is PV  nRT , where T is measured from
absolute zero.
Stamp
2. Specific Heat of a Metal
2.1
Weigh out a metal sample in a cup.
Add about 200 cc of hot water.
Find c for your metal.
Mass of sample cup: ______________
Metal
Amount
Aluminum
200 g
Copper
500 g
Iron
500 g
Lead
800 g
Mass of calorimeter: ______________
Mass of calorimeter cup: ______________
Room Temperature: ______________
Metal
mMETAL
mWATER
TI,WATER
TF,WATER
Summary
Metal
c
cBOOK
% Diff
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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3. Constant-volume Thermometer
3.1
Graph P vs. T. Graph your data. Draw a fit line and extend it back to P = 0.
At what T does P = 0? What is the significance of this?
Table 3.1 Pressure of air at different temperatures
T (C)
P (kPa)
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 11: Latent Heat
23
Name: _________________________
1. Phase Change of Ice
1.1
Weigh out about 50 g of ice. Find L for ice.
L ________ cal/g
LBOOK ________ cal/g
Stamp
% Diff ________
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 12: The Oscillator
24
Name __________________________
1. Theory

Hooke’s Law is an approximation for a spring: F  kx

“k” is called the spring constant or stiffness.

The period (T) is the time for one complete oscillation.
Stamp
2. Static Stretching and “k”
2.1
Measure the stretching “x” as a function of mass for your spring. Use two
significant figures.
Table 2.1
Mass (kg)
Force (N)
0
0
Position vs. Weight
Position (m)
x (m)
0
Graph the data. Put x on the x-axis and F on the y-axis.
Draw a fit line. Find the slope, the intercept, and k. Don’t forget units.
Slope: ________
Intercept: ________
kSTATIC: ________
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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3. Spring oscillations and “k”
3.1
Find the period of oscillation for various amplitudes. Use m = 200 g.
Table 3.1
Amplitude
(m)
Time for 10
T (s)
oscillations
T vs. Amplitude
Amplitude
(m)
.04
.16
.08
.20
.12
.24
Time for 10
T (s)
oscillations
How does T change as the amplitude changes?
3.2
Find k DYNAMIC  4 2 M / T 2 where M = mWEIGHT + (1/3)mSPRING.
Compare kSTATIC to kDYNAMIC.
3.3
Measure T with M (not m) = 100 g and with M = 400 g. How do they
compare?
T (100 g) ________
3.4
T (400 g) ________
Measure T with one spring and with two springs. How do they compare?
T (one spring) ________
T (two springs) ________
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 13: The Pendulum
26
Name __________________________
1. Static “stretching”
1.1
Hold the pendulum at various angles. Measure the amount
of sideways force you need to hold the pendulum in place.
Table 1.1
Angle
Stamp
Force vs. Position
Force (N)
Angle
5
40
10
50
20
60
30
70
Force (N)
Graph the data. Put  on the x-axis and F on the y-axis. Draw a fit line.
2. Pendulum oscillations
2.1
Measure the period for various displacements. Graph your data.
Galileo thought that T was constant for a pendulum. Was he right?
Table 2.1
Angle
5
10
15
Amplitude vs. Period
20
30
40
50
60
# of swings
Time (s)
T (s)
2.2
Measure T with different m’s:
T (100 g) ________ T (200 g) ________
2.3
Measure T with different L’s:
T (L) ________
3.2
How does the period of the pendulum change with the size of the swing, the
mass on the string, and the length of the string?
T (¼ L) ________
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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Lab 14: Speed of Sound
Name: _________________________
1. Resonances
1.1
Graph the resonance lengths as a function of n for two frequencies.
Stamp
Table 2.1 Resonant Lengths
f (Hz)
1.2
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Find  and calculate v for all the groups in the table below.
Table 2.2 Speed of Sound
Group
Number
f (Hz)
f (Hz)
Nominal
Actual
1
800
2
900
3
1000
4
1100
5
1200
6
1400
7
1600
1
1800
2
2000
3
2200
4
2400
5
2700
6
3000
7
3300
 (m)
v (m/s)
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 15: String Resonance
28
Name: _________________________
1. Theory
Everything has one or more natural frequencies of vibration and
will resonate at these frequencies.
Stamp
2. Resonances and nodes
2.1
Set L to 1 m. Put a mass of 200 g on your string. Find the first five resonant
frequencies. For each resonance measure  and calculate the wave speed.
Make a graph with n on the x-axis and f on the y-axis. Print the graph.
n
f (Hz)
 (m)
v (m/s)
1
2
3
4
5
Table 2.1 Resonances
3. Resonance and length
3.1
Set m = 200 g. For lengths from 20 cm to 1 m, find the resonant frequency f.
Make a graph with L on the x-axis and f on the y-axis. Print the graph.
L (cm)
20
40
60
80
f (Hz)
Table 3.1 Resonant Frequency vs. Length
4. Resonance and tension
4.1
Set L = 1 m. For masses below find the resonant frequency f.
m (g)
50
200
800
f (Hz)
Table 4.1 Resonant Frequency vs. Mass
100
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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Lab 16: Statistics
Name _________________________
1. Trials and Randomness
Stamp
1.1 Put 8 pennies in a cup. Shake the cup, dump the pennies out,
and count the number of heads. This is a “trial.”
Make a mark in the appropriate column on table 1. For example,
if you get 5 heads, put an “X” in column labeled “5.”
2002
Do 20 trials per person, making an “X” for each one. Every
person should keep his or her own record.
2002
2002
After this, combine all the data from the entire group.
This is called a histogram or a bar graph.
2002
Column
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
# Heads
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 1.1: Tossing 8 Pennies Per Trial
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
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2. Larger Numbers
2.1
Repeat exercise 1, but use 32 pennies for each toss instead of 8.
Column
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
#Heads
0-2
3-6
7-10
11-14
15-18
19-22
23-26
27-30
31-32
Table 2.1: Tossing 32 Pennies Per Trial
3. Averages
3.1
Your instructor will tell you how to find the various different kinds of averages.
“Heads”
Expected
Mode
Mean
Median
8 pennies
32 Pennies
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
31
3.2
The mode is the column with the most X’s. There may be more than one.
3.3
The mean is the total number of heads for all trials ÷ by the number of trials.
8 Pennies
Column
3.4
# of X’s
32 Pennies
# of Heads
Column
0
1
1
4.5
2
8.5
3
12.5
4
16.5
5
20.5
6
24.5
7
28.5
8
31.5
Total
Total
# of X’s
# of Heads
Use the following worksheet to find the median:
Start by adding all the X’s in each column.
8¢
32 ¢
(a) Which column did you get to without exceeding 30?
______
______
(b) What was the total number of X’s up to this point?
______
______
(c) How many more X’s would you need to equal 30?
______
______
(d) How many X’s are in the next higher column?
______
______
(e) Calculate the median: N a  (c / d )  (1/ 2)
(N = 1 or 4)
______
______

In what situations would the mode be the most useful average?

In what situations would the mean be the most useful average?

In what situations would the median be the most useful average?
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
32
4. Comparing the Two Graphs.
4.1
Use Excel to graph your results for parts 1 and 2 on the same graph. Use a
graph that connects the data points.
4.2
In what way are the two graphs different? The same?
4.3
Which experiment (8 pennies or 32) is more likely to give an “unusual” result?
4.4
In which case is an unusual result more significant, when the group being
tested is large or small? (Hint: what do I mean by “significant”?)
5. Proof
The 5-year survival rate for leukemia is about 50%, meaning about half of all
people diagnosed with leukemia will be alive after five years.
Suppose you have an experimental drug which you give to a group of mice
with leukemia. You start with eight mice and observe that, after the mouse
equivalent of five years, 6 are still alive (that’s 75% of the mice).
What are the odds that this would happen by random chance?
_______
What are the odds that the increased survival rate is from the drug? _______
If you work for the FDA (Food and Drug Administration), would you approve
this drug for use in leukemia patients? Would you fund more experiments?
You decide to do a larger trial. You test 32 mice and find that 24 survive
(again, this is 75% of the mice).
What are the odds that this would happen by random chance?
_______
What are the odds that the increased survival rate is from the drug? _______
If you work for the FDA (Food and Drug Administration), would you approve
this drug for use in leukemia patients? Would you fund more experiments?
P120 Lab Manual Revised 4/20/1
Lab 17: Galileo and the Pendulum
33
Name: _________________________
1. Theory


According to Galileo, the period of a pendulum does not depend
on the size of the swing.
The period is related to the length of the string: T  2 d / g
Stamp
2. Period and amplitude
1.1
Find the period of a pendulum for various amplitudes.
Table 2.1 Period vs. Amplitude
 ()
# of Osc.
Total t
Total t
trial 1
trial 2
T
2
4
6
8
10
15
20
30
40
50
60
1.2
Graph T() with the y-axis starting at 0.
Graph T() with the y-axis covering just the range of your data.
Each graph should have a linear fit line.
In your report, discuss the validity of Galileo’s hypothesis based on your
evidence.
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2. Finding g with a pendulum
2.1
Re-write the equation T  2 d / g to find g in terms of d and T.
2.2
Find d for your pendulum:
Length of string: ______
Dia. of ball: ______
d: ______
For an amplitude of 5, find T with a trial of 100 oscillations.
()
N
5
100
Total t
T
Use this data and the formula to find your value for g. Compare this to the
book value for g.
Experimental g:
__________
Theoretical g:
__________
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Appendix 1: Lab Protocol
At the beginning of each lab I will lay out cards with each student’s name and place
the cards on the tables. You will have a different lab group each week.
It is very important to be on time. The doors will be locked at the beginning of each
lab and roll taken. If you are late you must knock to get in and you will lose one point
per minute you are late.
Lab reports are due the following week at the beginning of your lab session.
If you miss a lab call and see if you can attend another lab session. This will be done
only if you have a good reason, such as a serious illness, for missing lab. If the lab
cannot be made up an alternate assignment will be given. If you don’t have a good
reason the lab will be scored as a zero.
The Lab Report
A report should have the following, all stapled together:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The original lab handout with my stamp on it.
Any additional sheets on which you wrote down data.
Any graphs you make in lab.
A TYPED report.
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Grading
Each lab is graded from 0 to 100. Grading will be based on the following:








The lab is stamped. (100 points)
You were ready for the lab and participated actively in the lab. (15 points)
All the necessary data was taken. The data is clear and neat. (20 points)
All data has units. (5 points)
The number of digits is correct (not too many or too few). (5 points)
Graphs: (10 points)
o The axes are labeled and units are shown.
o The graph has a title at the top.
o The data points are NOT connected.
o A fit line is there if required.
All questions are answered in the report. (20 points)
The report: (30 points)
o The report is not too short or too long (about one page is typical).
o The phenomenon being studied is described and a theory is given.
o The procedure is BRIEFLY described.
o The theory is compared with the actual results. This will usually include a
BRIEF discussion of uncertainties.
o A conclusion is drawn about theory. To what accuracy is it true? How
much confidence can you place in it based on your data? Is the theory true
only within certain limits or under some circumstances?
Point values are given to show how many points might be deducted for incorrect
procedure or missing items.