Network Layer: Routing
Goals:
 understand principles
behind network layer
services:



routing (path selection)
dealing with scale
how a router works
• Previous two lectures
 instantiation and
implementation in the
Internet
Overview:
 network layer services
 routing principle:
 path selection
 hierarchical routing
 IP
 Internet routing
protocols:


intra-domain
inter-domain
Network Layer
#1
Network Layer
 Transport packet from source to
dest.
 Network layer in every host,
router
Basic functions:
 Data plane: forwarding

move packets from
router’s input port to
router output port
 Control plane: path
determination and call setup

determine route taken by
packets from source to
destination
Network Layer
#2
Forwarding: Illustration
routing and call
setup
3
Network Layer
#3
Network Layer: Complexity Factors
 For users: quality of service




guaranteed bandwidth?
preservation of inter-packet timing (no jitter)?
loss-free delivery?
in-order delivery?
 Interaction between users and network
providers

signaling: congestion feedback/resource reservation
 For network providers



efficiency
policy of route control
scalability
Network Layer
#4
Network service model
Q: What service model
for “channel”
transporting packets
from sender to
receiver?
 guaranteed bandwidth?
 preservation of inter-packet
timing (no jitter)?
 loss-free delivery?
 in-order delivery?
 congestion feedback to
sender?
The most important
abstraction provided
by network layer:
? ?
?
virtual circuit
or
datagram?
Network Layer
#5
Datagram networks:
the Internet model
 no call setup at network layer
 routers: no state about end-to-end connections
 no network-level concept of “connection”
 packets typically routed using destination host ID
 packets between same source-dest pair may take
different paths
application
transport
network
data link 1. Send data
physical
application
transport
network
2. Receive data
data link
physical
Network Layer
#8
Network Layer Quality of Service
Network
Architecture
Internet
Service
Model
Guarantees ?
Congestion
Bandwidth Loss Order Timing feedback
best effort none
ATM
CBR
ATM
VBR
ATM
ABR
ATM
UBR
constant
rate
guaranteed
rate
guaranteed
minimum
none
no
no
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
yes
no
no (inferred
via loss/delay)
no
congestion
no
congestion
yes
no
yes
no
no
 Internet model being extended: Intserv, Diffserv

multimedia networking
ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode; CBR: Constant Bit Rate; V: Variable; A: available;
User
NetworkU:
Layer
#9
Datagram or VC network: why?
Internet (Datagram)
 data exchange among
computers
 “elastic” service, no strict
timing req.
 “smart” end systems
(computers)
 can adapt, perform
control, error recovery
 simple inside network,
complexity at “edge”
 many link types
 different characteristics
 uniform service difficult
ATM (VC)
 evolved from telephony
 human conversation:
strict timing, reliability
requirements
 need for guaranteed
service
 “dumb” end systems
 telephones
 complexity inside
network

 VC Benefits:
 Fast forwarding
 Traffic Engineering.
Network Layer
#10
Network Layer: Protocols
Network layer functions:
Transport layer
Routing protocols
•path selection
•e.g., RIP, OSPF, BGP
Control protocols
- router “signaling”
e.g. RSVP
Control protocols
•error reporting
e.g. ICMP
Network
layer
forwarding
Network layer protocol (e.g., IP)
•addressing conventions
•packet format
•packet handling conventions
Link layer
physical layer
Network Layer
#11
Control: ROUTING algorithms
Network Layer
#12
Control Plane: Routing
Routing
Goal: determine “good” paths
(sequences of routers) thru
network from sources to dest.
Graph abstraction for the
routing problem:
5
 graph nodes are routers
 graph edges are physical
links

links have properties: delay,
capacity, $ cost, policy
A
2
1
B
2
D
3
C
3
1
1
E
5
F
2
Network Layer
#13
Key Desired Properties of a Routing
Algorithm
 Robustness
 Optimality
 find
good path
(for user/provider)
 Simplicity
Network Layer
#14
Routing Design Space
- Robustness
- Optimality
- Simplicity
 Routing has a large design space
 who decides routing?
• source routing: end hosts make decision
• network routing: networks make decision

how many paths from source s to destination d?
• multi-path routing
• single path routing

will routing adapt to network traffic demand?
• adaptive routing
• static routing

…
Network Layer
#15
Routing Algorithm classification
Global or decentralized
information?
Global:
 all routers have complete
topology, link cost info
 “link state” algorithms
Decentralized:
 router knows physicallyconnected neighbors, link
costs to neighbors
 iterative process of
computation, exchange of
info with neighbors
 “distance vector” algorithms
Static or dynamic?
Static:
 routes change slowly over
time
Dynamic:
 routes change more quickly
 periodic update
 in response to link cost
changes
Network Layer
#16
A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm
 net topology, link costs
known to all nodes
 accomplished via “link
state broadcast”
 all nodes have same info
 computes least cost paths
from one node (“source”) to
all other nodes
 gives routing table for
that node
 iterative: after k
iterations, know least cost
path to k dest.’s
Notation:
 c(i,j): link cost from node i
to j. cost infinite if not
direct neighbors
 D(v): current value of cost
of path from source to
dest. V
 p(v): predecessor node
along path from source to
v, that is next v
 N: set of nodes whose
least cost path definitively
known
Network Layer
#17
Dijsktra’s Algorithm
1 Initialization:
2 N = {A}
3 for all nodes v
4
if v adjacent to A
5
then D(v) = c(A,v)
6
else D(v) = infty
7
8 Loop
9 find w not in N such that D(w) is a minimum
10 add w to N
11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N:
12
D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) )
13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known
14 shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */
15 until all nodes in N
Network Layer
#18
Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
Step
0
1
2
3
4
5
start N
A
AD
ADE
ADEB
ADEBC
ADEBCF
D(B),p(B) D(C),p(C) D(D),p(D) D(E),p(E) D(F),p(F)
2,A
1,A
5,A
infinity
infinity
2,A
4,D
2,D
infinity
2,A
3,E
4,E
3,E
4,E
4,E
5
2
A
B
2
1
D
3
C
3
1
5
F
1
E
2
Network Layer
#19
Dijkstra’s algorithm, discussion
Algorithm complexity: n nodes
 each iteration: need to check all nodes, w, not in N
 n(n+1)/2 comparisons: O(n2)
more efficient implementations possible: O(nlogn)

Oscillations possible:
 e.g., link cost = amount of carried traffic
D
1
1
0
A
0 0
C
e
1+e
B
e
initially
2+e
D
0
1
A
1+e 1
C
0
B
0
… recompute
routing
0
D
1
A
0 0
2+e
B
C 1+e
… recompute
2+e
D
0
A
1+e 1
C
0
B
0
… recompute
Network Layer
#20
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm
iterative:
 continues until no
nodes exchange info.
 self-terminating: no
“signal” to stop
asynchronous:
 nodes need not
exchange info/iterate
in lock step!
distributed:
 each node
communicates only with
directly-attached
neighbors
Distance Table data structure
 each node has its own
 row for each possible destination
 column for each directly-
attached neighbor to node
 example: in node X, for dest. Y
via neighbor Z:
X
D (Y,Z)
distance from X to
= Y, via Z as next hop
= c(X,Z) + min {DZ(Y,w)}
w
Network Layer
#21
Distance Vector Routing
 Basis of RIP, IGRP, EIGRP routing
protocols
 Based on the Bellman-Ford
algorithm (BFA)
 Conceptually, runs for each
destination separately
Network Layer
#22
Distance Vector Routing: Basic Idea
 At node i, the basic update rule
d i  min
jN ( i )
(d ij  d j )
where
- di denotes the distance
estimation from i to the
destination,
- N(i) is set of neighbors of
node i, and
- dij is the distance of
the direct link from i to j;
assume positive
destination
j
di
d ij
i
dj
Network Layer
#23
Distance Table: Example
A
7
Below is just one step! The algorithm repeats forever! 10
distance tables
from neighbors
computation
dE ()
A
B
D
A
A
0
7

10 15 
B
7
0

17 8
C

1
2

D


0

10 8
2
B
D
E’s
distance
table
B
1
C
2
8
E
2
D
distance
table E sends
to its neighbors
A: 10
A: 10

B: 8
B: 8
9
4
D: 4
C: 4

2
D: 2
D: 2
E: 0
Network Layer
#24
Distance Table: example
7
A
B
1
C
E
cost to destination via
D ()
A
B
D
A
1
14
5
B
7
8
5
C
6
9
4
D
4
11
2
2
8
1
E
2
D
E
D (C,D) = c(E,D) + min {DD(C,w)}
= 2+2 = 4
w
E
D (A,D) = c(E,D) + min {DD(A,w)}
E
w
= 2+3 = 5
loop!
D (A,B) = c(E,B) + min {D B(A,w)}
= 8+6 = 14
w
(why not 15?)
Network Layer
#25
Distance table gives routing table
E
cost to destination via
Outgoing link
D ()
A
B
D
A
1
14
5
A
A,1
B
7
8
5
B
D,5
C
6
9
4
C
D,4
D
4
11
2
D
D,2
Distance table
to use, cost
Routing table
Network Layer
#26
Distance Vector Routing: overview
Iterative, asynchronous:
each local iteration caused
by:
 local link cost change
 message from neighbor: its
least cost path change
from neighbor
Distributed:
 each node notifies
neighbors only when its
least cost path to any
destination changes

neighbors then notify
their neighbors if
necessary
Each node:
wait for (change in local link
cost of msg from neighbor)
recompute distance table
if least cost path to any dest
has changed, notify
neighbors
Network Layer
#27
Distance Vector Algorithm:
At all nodes, X:
1 Initialization:
2 for all adjacent nodes v:
3
DX(*,v) = infty
/* the * operator means "for all rows" */
4
DX(v,v) = c(X,v)
5 for all destinations, y
6
send minw DX(y,w) to each neighbor /* w over all X's neighbors */
Network Layer
#28
Distance Vector Algorithm (cont.):
8 loop
9 wait (until a link cost change to neighbor V
10
or until receive update from neighbor V)
11
12 if (c(X,V) changes by d)
13 /* change cost to all dest's via neighbor v by d */
14 /* note: d could be positive or negative */
15 for all destinations y: DX(y,V) = DX(y,V) + d
16
17 else if (update received from V wrt destination Y)
18 /* shortest path from V to some Y has changed */
19 /* V has sent a new value for its minw DV(Y,w) */
20 /* call this received new value is "newval" */
21 for the single destination y: D X(Y,V) = c(X,V) + newval
22
23 if a new minw DX(Y,w) for any destination Y
24
send new value of minw DX(Y,w) to all neighbors
25
Network Layer
26 forever
#29
Distance Vector Algorithm: example
X
2
Y
7
1
Z
X
Z
X
Y
D (Y,Z) = c(X,Z) + minw{D (Y,w)}
= 7+1 = 8
D (Z,Y) = c(X,Y) + minw {D (Z,w)}
= 2+1 = 3
Network Layer
#30
Distance Vector Algorithm: example
X
2
Y
7
1
Z
Network Layer
#31
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
 node detects local link cost change
 updates distance table (line 15)
 if cost change in least cost path,
notify neighbors (lines 23,24)
“good
news
travels
fast”
1
X
4
Y
1
50
Z
algorithm
terminates
Network Layer
#32
Distance Vector: link cost changes
Link cost changes:
 good news travels fast
 bad news travels slow -
“count to infinity” problem!
60
X
4
Y
1
50
Z
algorithm
continues
on!
Network Layer
#33
Distance Vector: poisoned reverse
If Z routes through Y to get to X :
 Z tells Y its (Z’s) distance to X is
infinite (so Y won’t route to X via Z)
 will this completely solve count to
infinity problem?
60
X
4
Y
50
1
Z
algorithm
terminates
Network Layer
#34
Comparison of LS and DV algorithms
Message complexity
 LS: with n nodes, E links,
O(nE) msgs sent
 DV: exchange between
neighbors only
 larger msgs
 convergence time varies
Speed of Convergence
 LS: requires O(nE) msgs
may have oscillations
 DV: convergence time varies
 may be routing loops
 count-to-infinity problem
Robustness: what happens
if router malfunctions?
LS:


node can advertise
incorrect link cost
each node computes only
its own table
DV:



DV node can advertise
incorrect path cost
each node’s table used by
others
• error propagate thru
network
Network Layer
#35
Hierarchical Routing
Our routing study thus far - idealization
 all routers identical
 network “flat”
… not true in practice
scale: with 50 million
destinations:
 can’t store all dest’s in
routing tables!
 routing table exchange
would swamp links!
administrative autonomy
 internet = network of
networks
 each network admin may
want to control routing in its
own network
Network Layer
#36
Hierarchical Routing
 aggregate routers into
regions, “autonomous
systems” (AS)
 routers in same AS run
same routing protocol


“intra-AS” routing
protocol
routers in different AS
can run different intraAS routing protocol
gateway routers
 special routers in AS
 run intra-AS routing
protocol with all other
routers in AS
 also responsible for
routing to destinations
outside AS
 run inter-AS routing
protocol with other
gateway routers
Network Layer
#37
Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
C.b
a
C
Gateways:
B.a
A.a
b
A.c
d
A
a
b
c
a
c
B
b
•perform inter-AS
routing amongst
themselves
•perform intra-AS
routers with other
routers in their
AS
network layer
inter-AS, intra-AS
routing in
gateway A.c
link layer
physical layer
Network Layer
#38
Intra-AS and Inter-AS routing
C.b
a
Host
h1
C
b
A.a
Inter-AS
routing
between
A and B
A.c
a
d
c
b
A
Intra-AS routing
within AS A
B.a
a
c
B
Host
h2
b
Intra-AS routing
within AS B
 We’ll examine specific inter-AS and intra-AS
Internet routing protocols shortly
Network Layer
#39
The Internet Network layer
Host, router network layer functions:
Transport layer: TCP, UDP
Network
layer
IP protocol
•addressing conventions
•datagram format
•packet handling conventions
Routing protocols
•path selection
•RIP, OSPF, BGP
routing
table
ICMP protocol
•error reporting
•router “signaling”
Link layer
physical layer
Network Layer
#40
AS D
Routing: Example
E
d
AS A
(OSPF)
a2
F
No Export
to F
a1
i
AS C
AS B
i2
(OSPF intra
routing)
b
AS I
Network Layer
#41
AS D
Routing: Example
E
d1
d
d2
AS A
(OSPF)
a2
F
i
AS C
a1
How to specify?
AS B
(OSPF intra
routing)
b
AS I
Network Layer
#42
IP Addressing Scheme
 We need an address to uniquely identify
each destination
 Routing scalability needs flexibility in
aggregation of destination addresses
 we
should be able to aggregate a set of
destinations as a single routing unit
 Preview: the unit of routing in the Internet
is a network---the destinations in the routing
protocols are networks
Network Layer
#43
IP Addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host,
router interface
 interface: connection
between host, router
and physical link



router’s typically have
multiple interfaces
host may have multiple
interfaces
IP addresses
associated with
interface, not host, or
router
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.1.1 = 11011111 00000001 00000001 00000001
223
1
1
Network Layer
1
#44
IP Addressing: introduction
 IP address: 32-bit
identifier for host,
router interface
 interface: connection
between host, router
and physical link



223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
router’s typically have
223.1.3.2
223.1.3.1
multiple interfaces
host may have multiple
interfaces
IP addresses
associated with 132.67.192.133 = 10000100 01000011 11000000 10000101
interface, not host, or
223
67
192
133
router
Network Layer
#45
IP Addressing
 IP address:
 network part
• high order bits

host part
• low order bits
 What’s a network ?
(from IP address
perspective)
 device interfaces with
same network part of
IP address
 can physically reach
each other without
intervening router
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
LAN
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
network consisting of 3 IP networks
(for IP addresses starting with 223,
first 24 bits are network address)
Network Layer
#46
IP Addressing
How to find the
networks?
 Detach each
interface from
router, host
 create “islands of
isolated networks
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.1
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.9.2
223.1.7.0
223.1.9.1
223.1.7.1
223.1.8.1
223.1.8.0
223.1.2.6
Interconnected
system consisting
of six networks
223.1.2.1
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
223.1.3.1
223.1.3.2
Network Layer
#47
IP Addresses
given notion of “network”, let’s re-examine IP addresses:
“class-full” addressing:
class
A
0 network
B
10
C
110
D
1110
1.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255
host
network
128.0.0.0 to
191.255.255.255
host
network
multicast address
host
192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.255
224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255
32 bits
Network Layer
#48
IP addressing: CIDR
 classful addressing:


inefficient use of address space, address space exhaustion
e.g., class B net allocated enough addresses for 65K hosts,
even if only 2K hosts in that network
 CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing


network portion of address of arbitrary length
address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in network
portion of address
network
part
host
part
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
Network Layer
#49
CIDR Address Aggregation
AS D
d
d1
AS A
(OSPF)
130.132.1/24
i
i->a1: I can reach
130.132/16; my
path: I
a2
a1
130.132.2/24
AS I
intradomain
routing uses /24
130.132.3/24
Network Layer
#50
CIDR Address Aggregation
B
x00/24: B
A
x01/24: C
C
x10/24: E
G
E
x11/24: F
F
Network Layer
#51
IP addresses: how to get one?
Hosts (host portion):
 hard-coded by system admin in a file
 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol:
dynamically get address: “plug-and-play”
 host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg
 DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg
 host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg
 DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg
 The common practice in LAN and home access
(why?)
Network Layer
#52
IP addresses: how to get one?
Network (network portion):
 get allocated portion of ISP’s address space:
ISP's block
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/20
Organization 0
11001000 00010111 00010000 00000000
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
11001000 00010111 00010010 00000000
200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2
...
11001000 00010111 00010100 00000000
…..
….
200.23.20.0/23
….
Organization 7
11001000 00010111 00011110 00000000
200.23.30.0/23
Network Layer
#53
Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
Hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing
information:
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
Fly-By-Night-ISP
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
Internet
200.23.30.0/23
ISPs-R-Us
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
199.31.0.0/16”
Network Layer
#54
Hierarchical addressing: more specific
routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1
Organization 0
200.23.16.0/23
Organization 2
200.23.20.0/23
Organization 7
.
.
.
.
.
.
Fly-By-Night-ISP
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning
200.23.16.0/20”
Internet
200.23.30.0/23
ISPs-R-Us
Organization 1
200.23.18.0/23
“Send me anything
with addresses
beginning 199.31.0.0/16
or 200.23.18.0/23”
Network Layer
#55
Network Address Translation: Motivation
 A local network uses just one public IP address as far as outside
world is concerned
 Each device on the local network is assigned a private IP address
rest of
Internet
local network
(e.g., home network)
192.168.1.0/24
192.168.1.1
192.168.1.2
192.168.1.3
138.76.29.7
192.168.1.4
All datagrams leaving local
network have same single source
NAT IP address: 138.76.29.7,
different source port numbers
Datagrams with source or
destination in this network
have 192.168.1/24 address for
source, destination (as usual)
Network Layer
#56
NAT: Network Address
Translation
Implementation: NAT router must:



outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port
#) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address,
new port #)
. . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT
IP address, new port #) as destination addr.
remember (in NAT translation table) every (source
IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #)
translation pair
incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new
port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram
with corresponding (source IP address, port #)
stored in NAT table
Network Layer
#57
NAT: Network Address Translation
NAT translation table
WAN side addr
LAN side addr
1: host 192.168.1.2
2: NAT router
sends datagram to
changes datagram
138.76.29.7, 5001 192.168.1.2, 3345
128.119.40.186, 80
source addr from
……
……
192.168.1.2, 3345 to
138.76.29.7, 5001,
S: 192.168.1.2, 3345
updates table
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
2
S: 138.76.29.7, 5001
D: 128.119.40.186, 80
138.76.29.7
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 138.76.29.7, 5001
3: Reply arrives
dest. address:
138.76.29.7, 5001
3
192.168.1.2
1
192.168.1.1
192.168.1.3
S: 128.119.40.186, 80
D: 192.168.1.2, 3345
4
192.168.1.4
4: NAT router
changes datagram
dest addr from
138.76.29.7, 5001 to 192.168.1.2, 3345
Network Layer
#58
Network Address Translation: Advantages
 No need to be allocated range of addresses
from ISP: - just one public IP address is
used for all devices
16-bit port-number field allows 60,000
simultaneous connections with a single LAN-side
address !
 can change ISP without changing addresses of
devices in local network
 can change addresses of devices in local network
without notifying outside world

 Devices inside local net not explicitly
addressable, visible by outside world (a
security plus)
Network Layer
#59
NAT: Network Address Translation
 If both hosts are behind NAT, they will
have difficulty establishing connection
 NAT is controversial:
 routers
should process up to only layer 3
 violates end-to-end argument
• NAT possibility must be taken into account by app
designers, e.g., P2P applications
 address
shortage should instead be solved by
having more addresses --- IPv6 !
Network Layer
#60
IP addressing: the last word...
Q: How does an ISP get block of addresses?
A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers
 allocates addresses
 manages DNS
 assigns domain names, resolves disputes
Network Layer
#61
Getting a datagram from source to dest.
routing table in A
Dest. Net. next router Nhops
223.1.1
223.1.2
223.1.3
IP datagram:
misc source dest
fields IP addr IP addr
data
A
 datagram remains
unchanged, as it travels
source to destination
 addr fields of interest
here
 mainly dest. IP addr
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.4
1
2
2
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
B
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.1
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
E
223.1.3.2
Network Layer
#62
Getting a datagram from source to dest.
misc
data
fields 223.1.1.1 223.1.1.3
Dest. Net. next router Nhops
223.1.1
223.1.2
223.1.3
Starting at A, given IP
datagram addressed to B:
 look up net. address of B
 find B is on same net. as A
A
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
 link layer will send datagram
directly to B inside link-layer
frame
 B and A are directly
connected
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.4
1
2
2
B
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.1
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
E
223.1.3.2
Network Layer
#63
Getting a datagram from source to dest.
misc
data
fields 223.1.1.1 223.1.2.2
Dest. Net. next router Nhops
223.1.1
223.1.2
223.1.3
Starting at A, dest. E:
 look up network address of E
 E on different network
A, E not directly attached
routing table: next hop
router to E is 223.1.1.4
link layer sends datagram to
router 223.1.1.4 inside linklayer frame
datagram arrives at 223.1.1.4
continued…..
A
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.4
1
2
2
223.1.1.1





223.1.2.1
B
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.1
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
E
223.1.3.2
Network Layer
#64
Getting a datagram from source to dest.
misc
data
fields 223.1.1.1 223.1.2.2
Arriving at 223.1.4,
destined for 223.1.2.2
 look up network address of E
 E on same network as router’s
interface 223.1.2.9
 router, E directly attached
 link layer sends datagram to
223.1.2.2 inside link-layer
frame via interface 223.1.2.9
 datagram arrives at
223.1.2.2!!! (hooray!)
Dest.
next
network router Nhops interface
223.1.1
223.1.2
223.1.3
A
-
1
1
1
223.1.1.4
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.1.1
223.1.2.1
B
223.1.1.2
223.1.1.4
223.1.1.3
223.1.3.1
223.1.2.9
223.1.3.27
223.1.2.2
E
223.1.3.2
Network Layer
#65
IP datagram format
IP protocol version
number
header length
(bytes)
“type” of data
max number
remaining hops
(decremented at
each router)
upper layer protocol
to deliver payload to
32 bits
head. type of
length
len service
fragment
16-bit identifier flgs
offset
time to upper
Internet
layer
live
checksum
ver
total datagram
length (bytes)
for
fragmentation/
reassembly
32 bit source IP address
32 bit destination IP address
Options (if any)
data
(variable length,
typically a TCP
or UDP segment)
E.g. timestamp,
record route
taken, specify
list of routers
to visit.
Network Layer
#66
Routing in the Internet
 The Global Internet consists of Autonomous Systems
(AS) interconnected with each other:



Stub AS: small corporation
Multihomed AS: large corporation (no transit)
Transit AS: provider
 Two-level routing:
 Intra-AS: administrator is responsible for choice
 Inter-AS: unique standard
Network Layer
#67
Internet AS Hierarchy
Inter-AS border (exterior gateway) routers
Intra-AS interior (gateway) routers
Network Layer
#68
Intra-AS Routing
 Also known as Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP)
 Most common IGPs:

RIP: Routing Information Protocol

OSPF: Open Shortest Path First

IGRP: Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (Cisco
propr.)
Network Layer
#69
RIP ( Routing Information Protocol)
 Distance vector algorithm
 Included in BSD-UNIX Distribution in 1982
 Distance metric: # of hops (max = 15 hops)
 why?
 Distance vectors: exchanged every 30 sec via
Response Message (also called advertisement)
 Each advertisement: route to up to 25 destination
nets
Network Layer
#70
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
z
w
A
x
D
y
B
C
Destination Network
w
y
z
x
….
Next Router
Num. of hops to dest.
….
....
A
B
B
--
2
2
7
1
Routing table in D
Network Layer
#71
RIP: Link Failure and Recovery
If no advertisement heard after 180 sec -->
neighbor/link declared dead
 routes via neighbor invalidated
 new advertisements sent to neighbors
 neighbors in turn send out new advertisements (if
tables changed)
 link failure info quickly propagates to entire net
 poison reverse used to prevent ping-pong loops
(infinite distance = 16 hops)
Network Layer
#72
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
 “open”: publicly available
 Uses Link State algorithm
 LS packet dissemination
 Topology map at each node
 Route computation using Dijkstra’s algorithm
 OSPF advertisement carries one entry per neighbor
router
 Advertisements disseminated to entire AS (via
flooding)
Network Layer
#73
OSPF “advanced” features (not in RIP)
 Security: all OSPF messages authenticated (to
prevent malicious intrusion); TCP connections used
 Multiple same-cost paths allowed

only one path in RIP
 For each link, multiple cost metrics for different
ToS (eg, satellite link cost set “low” for best effort;
high for real time)
 Integrated uni- and multicast support:

Multicast OSPF (MOSPF) uses same topology data base as
OSPF
 Hierarchical OSPF in large domains.
Network Layer
#74
Hierarchical OSPF
Network Layer
#75
Hierarchical OSPF
 Two-level hierarchy: local area, backbone.
Link-state advertisements only in area
 each nodes has detailed area topology; only know
direction (shortest path) to nets in other areas.
 Area border routers: “summarize” distances to nets
in own area, advertise to other Area Border routers.
 Backbone routers: run OSPF routing limited to
backbone.
 Boundary routers: connect to other ASs.

Network Layer
#76
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
 CISCO proprietary; successor of RIP (mid 80s)
 Distance Vector, like RIP
 several cost metrics (delay, bandwidth, reliability,
load etc)
 uses TCP to exchange routing updates
 Loop-free routing via Distributed Updating Alg.
(DUAL) based on diffused computation
Network Layer
#77
Inter-AS routing
Network Layer
#78
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol): the de facto
standard
 Path Vector protocol:
 similar to Distance Vector protocol
 each Border Gateway broadcast to neighbors
(peers) entire path (I.e, sequence of ASs) to
destination
 E.g., Gateway X may send its path to dest. Z:
Path (X,Z) = X,Y1,Y2,Y3,…,Z
Network Layer
#79
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
Suppose: gateway X send its path to peer gateway W
 W may or may not select path offered by X
 cost, policy (don’t route via competitors AS), loop
prevention reasons.
 If W selects path advertised by X, then:
Path (W,Z) = W, Path (X,Z)
 Note: X can control incoming traffic by controlling its
route advertisements to peers:
 e.g., don’t want to route traffic to Z -> don’t
advertise any routes to Z
Network Layer
#80
Internet inter-AS routing: BGP
 BGP messages exchanged using TCP.
 BGP messages:
OPEN: opens TCP connection to peer and
authenticates sender
 UPDATE: advertises new path (or withdraws old)
 KEEPALIVE keeps connection alive in absence of
UPDATES; also ACKs OPEN request
 NOTIFICATION: reports errors in previous msg;
also used to close connection

Network Layer
#81
Why different Intra- and Inter-AS routing ?
Policy:
 Inter-AS: admin wants control over how its traffic
routed, who routes through its net.
 Intra-AS: single admin, so no policy decisions needed
Scale:
 hierarchical routing saves table size, reduced update
traffic
Performance:
 Intra-AS: can focus on performance
 Inter-AS: policy may dominate over performance
Network Layer
#82