Indian Activism
In the context of Civil Rights
And against Termination and Problems on Indian
Reservations
Part Two: Last Stand
This Powerpoint is subject to continuous revisions.
Written and Revised by Scott Fritz, Ph.D. on
October 6, 2015 at 1:45 pm
Western New Mexico University
Sustaining Figures
 Indian leaders with support from traditional Indians and elders
 Experience with outside world
 Military service
 Business
 Bridge two worlds
 Examples to look at:
 During Allotment
 Charles Eastman
 Black Elk
 During Termination
 Roger Jourdain
 Hank Adams
 Billy Frank
 Lucy Covington
Sustaining Figures during Allotment
Charles Eastman:
Lakota
 Native American Physician (1858-1939)
 Early life
 Father fought against U.S. early 1860s
 Family fled to Canada, father imprisoned, became Christian,
convinced Charles to seek white man’s education
 Education
 Dartmouth and Boston University medical school
 Worked as doctor for the Bureau of Indian Affairs
 Recruit students for the Carlisle Indian School
 Helped form the Society of American Indians
 Founded Native American chapters of the YMCA
Charles Eastman’s Soul of an Indian,
was used by Indian peoples to
rediscover themselves during an era
of assimilation.
Black Elk
 Oglala Lakota medicine man, second
cousin of Crazy Horse
 Lived 1863-1950, fought in Battle of the
Little Big Horn
 When 9 years old, had vision of the
universal spirit and a tree symbolizing life
on earth and Indian peoples
 Injured at Wounded Knee 1890
Black Elk Continued:
 Traveled to England with Buffalo Bill’s
Wild West Show in 1887
 Convert to Catholicism and saw no
difference with between God and Wakan
Tanka
 Revealed sacred Sioux rituals to John
Neihardt in the book Black Elk Speaks
 “You have noticed that everything an Indian
does is in a circle, and that is because the
Power of the World always works in
circles…the Sacred Hoop”
Like Charles
Eastman’s Soul of an
Indian, Black Elk’s
sayings was used by
Indian peoples to
rediscover themselves
during an era of
assimilation.
Sustaining Figures on the
reservations
Characteristics of Leaders on
Reservations: 1950s-1960s
 Unlike “sustaining figures”
 Reservation leaders
 Lack of a formal education
 Learned how Washington worked, while trying to protect their
people’s rights
 Had a difficult time fighting Washington, D.C.
 Together with “sustaining figures”, they would pave the way
toward self-determination
Roger Jourdain: Red Lake Chippewa
 Of the Ojibwe of Minnesota
 Born 1912
 Experience with outside world
 Went to BIA Boarding School in Wisconsin
 Lumber jack on BIA logging camps
 Alaska Highway
 Helped form “Young Man’s Council”
 Changed constitution
 Instead of selected council, elected council
 1958 -- elected tribal chairman and serve until 1990
 Led movement to:
 Revitalize tribal homelands/culture
 Tribal sovereignty
Roger Jourdain: Continued
 Challenged BIA control of missions and schools
 Acquired money independent of BIA
 Fund tribally-run housing and health facilities
 Re-opened Indian Health Services hospital
 Brought running water to reservation
 Successful in preventing Public Law 280 on reservation
 Issued tribal license plates
 States were forced to honor those plates
 Tried to require passports for non-Indians entering reservation
 Initiated 1967 intertribal boycott of businesses in Bemidji, Minnesota
 Because of racist comments from a county commissioner
 Helped form National Tribal Chairman’s Association
 Helped create Minnesota Indian Scholarship Program
Seneca Reservation and the Kinzua Dam
 Seneca Reservation in Southwest New York, in the
Allegany Mountain
 Leader: George Heron:
 Born 1919, Civilian Conservation Corp,
 WWII Vet: pharmacist in U.S. Navy
 President of Seneca Nation 1958-1960, 1962-1964
 Kinzua Dam to generate electricity for profit (i.e. Cash
Register Dams), completed 1965
 Issue: Indian land can be flooded because they do not vote
 Issue: Corp of Engineers could have flooded the
ConewangoValley, but it would flood out whites (who
vote)
Leadership on the Seneca Reservation:
Kinzua Dam Controversy
 Cornelius Seneca and George Heron rallied his people
against the project in late 1950s
 Johnny Cash wrote song about dam
 Heron failed to stop dam
 Government removed 160 families
 Ancestral lands on reservation were flooded
 Kinzua Dam flooded graves, including that of
Cornplanter (Signer of Treaty of Canandaigua 1794)
Cornplanter fought
for Great Britain
during the
Revolutionary War
Garrison Dam: on the Fort Berthold
Reservation
 North Dakota, on the Missouri River, composed of the Mandan,
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Hidatsa, and Arikara tribes
Pick Sloan Agreement 1944 called for 112 dams to be
constructed on the Missouri
Garrison Dam proposed, which would flood the Berthold
reservation (some 200,000 acres)
Leader: Fort BerthholdTribal Chairman George Gillett
Failed to stop the dam
Hopi and Peabody Coal Co.
 Black Mesa (coal underneath) and includes the Navajo
and Hopi Reservations, and ancestral burial sites
 Lawyer for the Hopi John Boyden made deal in 1964 to
give lease rights to Peabody Energy for the coal
 Council members did not realize that sale of lease was
cheap for Peabody Coal Co.
 Use aquifer to pump water in coal slurry to electrical
generating plan in Laughlin, NV
 Kikmongwi (traditional Hopi) publically protested but
lost
 Spokesman Thomas Banyacya became leader in response
to the controversy
 Attended Sherman Indian School (Riverside, CA)
 Attended Bacone College, Ok
 Prison: Draft dodger in WWII
Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States
Decided in 1955
 Southeast Alaska: Aquatic life, forests, elk, moose, deer
 Salmon People: Tlingit
 Background:
 Purchase of Alaska 1867 – treaty with Russia
 Said all “uncivilized tribes” would be subject to laws and regulation
of U.S. government
 Tongass National Forest,1909
 Lumber, pulp, and paper industry
 Clear-cut around native villages and burial sites
 Case involved destruction of indigenous habitats
 1947: Alaska Native Brotherhood charged U.S. Forest
Service and lumber companies from trespassing
 Standoff, Indians arrested
 William Paul brought suit against U.S. government
 For Tongass National Forest awarding lumber deal to
Ketchikan Pulp Co.
William Paul, Tlingit, b. 1885,
lawyer, fought against school
segregation, won citizenship and
right to vote (before Citizenship
Act of 1924), helped establish
Alaska Native Brotherhood
(est.1912), fought for land rights,
brought suit that Tongass
National Forest does not own
Tlingit lands to Supreme Court
Tee-Hit-Ton case continued:
 Supreme Court: U.S. could take Indian lands and open it up
to development
 Indians in a “hunting and fishing” state of civilization
 Tlingit were compensated for lost lands
 Indian Claims Commission
 Alaska Natives Claims Settlement Act
 In spite of compensation, the land was destroyed
Significance of Tee-Hit-Ton decision
 “…federal Indian law offers few protections for indigenous
habitats in ancestral territory no longer owned or controlled by
Indian tribes.” (Echo Hawk, 365)
 Threatens native cultural identity because their mythology, etc. is
embedded in nature
 Indian view of nature vs. Anglo view of nature
 Animism
 Human domination over nature
 UN Declaration of Rights of Indigeneous People (2007)
 “…must be given the right to own, control and use ancestral
territories and be provided effective means to protect the
environmental integrity of indigenous habitat.” (Echo Hawk, 367)
Fish-ins
Salmon People
 What does the author mean? 
 Tribes primarily in the Pacific Northwest
 Tribes: Nisqually, (Washington) Salish
(Oregon) Tillamook (Oregon)
 Relied on fishing traditionally for food
Problems Facing “Salmon People”
 Columbia River Dams
 Grand Coulee Dam, 1942
 Flooded Kettle Falls, fishing area
 1941 Indians met for Ceremony of Tears
 Dalles Dam, 1957
 Flooded Celilo Falls
 Public Law 280
 Extended state jurisdiction onto reservations
 Forced Indians to purchase state-issued fishing
licenses
 Significance: Leads to Red Power Movement
and “Fishins,”
Billy Frank
 Born in 1931, Nisqually Indian Tribe
 Served in Marines during WWII
 Main Cause: Fishing Rights
 Treaty’s in the 1850s guaranteed rights to salmon fishing
 Was against Washington state laws requiring Indians to purchase
fishing licenses
 Also critical of environmental impact of clear-cutting of timber
 Would lead in ‘Fishins’
 Fish in traditional areas
 Would get arrested more than 50 times, went to jail willingly
 Marlon Brando supported his cause
 Nisqually took case to court, in U.S. v.Washington (1974)
 Judge George Boldt found in favor of Indians
 Boldt Decision est. 20 Indian tribes in Washington as co-
managers of salmon with the state
 Frank became chairman of the Northwest Indian Fisheries
Commission
Hank Adams
 Born 1943 on the Fort Peck Indian Reservation, Montana (Souix-
Assiniboine)
 Worked as vegetable picker and in the reservation lumber mill
 Went to college, spent time on the Quinault Reservation
 Treaty Fishing Rights
 Protested (in general) Public Law 280
 Sought Native American rights to fish salmon at traditional locations
on the Columbia and Niqually rivers
 In 1964, organized march on Olympia in Washington to protest
state attack on Indian treaty fishing rights
 Refused to go into Army until fishing rights were restored
 Ended up serving in the Army
Hank Adams: Continued
 Leader: Survival of American Indians Association, 1968
 To protect Indian fishing rights
 Arrested between 1968-1971 for fishing without license on the
Nisqually River
 Worked with larger, pan-Indian groups
 Director of the National Indian Youth Council
 Worked with the American Indian Movement
Red Power Movement: A
Growing pan-Indian
identity
Red Power: Indians of All Tribes
 Formed in San Francisco
 Children of parents participating in Relocation Program
 Formed around San Francisco Indian Center
 Occupation of Alcatraz, 1969
 Abandoned in 1963
 Sioux protesters occupied site in 1964, couple of hours
 Said Ft. Laramie Treaty of 1868 gave Indians right to claim any
unused federal property
 1969 occupation was led by Mohawk Richard Oakes
 Anglo Hippies visited, Oakes’ step-daughter fell and died and he
left, others left
 Lasted till 1971, when remaining Indians were removed by police
 Significance: Helped to lead to Indian Self-
Determination and Educational Assistance Act of 1975
Red Power Movement: American Indian
Movement
Founded by urban Indians whose parents
participated in Relocation Program, met
at Indian Center
 Founded 1968 in Minneapolis
 Dennis Banks (Chippewa)
 Clyde Bellecourt (Chippewa)
 Formed originally to address poverty, housing,
and conducted “street patrols” against police
harassment in Minneapolis
 Later extend to treaty rights on and off
reservations
 Sought to rediscover traditions
 Later joined by:
 Russell Means (Lakota)
 John Trudell (Lakota)
John Trudell, Radio Alcatraz, Russell
Means, worked for Cleveland Indian
Center
AIM Protests and Actions
 AIM participated in Mount Rushmore protests, July 4, 1971
 Claimed Paha Sapa sacred
 Mount Rushmore violated the 1868 Fort Laramie Treaty
 Took over Mayflower and painted Plymouth Rock red,
Thanksgiving,1971
 AIM’s angered over:
 Murder of Raymond Yellow Thunder (SD, near Pine Ridge
Reservation)
 AIM led caravan to Gordon, negotiations, murderers were indicted
 Murder of Richard Oakes
 Murders went free, Indians angered
 Murder of Papago Philip Celay
 Coroner ruled it a justified homicide
Trail of Broken Treaties march, 1972
 Idea originated at Sun Dance on Rosebud Reservation
 Plan: Caravans pick up Indians  converge in Minneapolis
 Hank Adams draft 20 Point Proposal
 Sovereignty, expansion of land base, tribal control of reservations, abolition of BIA
 Caravans arrived to Washington D.C.
 No where to stay, except auditorium of BIA Building
 Officials tried to remove, protesters stayed
 Some 400 Indians took over the BIA offices
 Destroyed furniture, documents, etc.
 Negotiated between occupiers and government
 Occupiers left peacefully upon assurances that they not be prosecuted
and government address 20 Points
 The following slide illustrates the 20 Points
Hank Adam’s 20 Points during the BIA
takeover
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Restore treaty making rights (ended by Congress in 1871);
Establish a treaty commission to make new treaties (with sovereign Native Nations);
Provide opportunities for Indian leaders to address Congress directly;
Review treaty commitments and violations;
Have un-ratified treaties reviewed by the Senate;
Ensure that all American Indians are governed by treaty relations;
Provide relief to Native Nations as compensation for treaty rights violations;
Recognize the right of Indians to interpret treaties;
Create a Joint Congressional Committee to reconstruct relations with Indians;
Restore 110 million acres (450,000 km2) of land taken away from Native Nations by the United States;
Restore terminated rights of Native Nations;
Repeal state jurisdiction on Native Nations (Public Law 280)
Provide Federal protection for offenses against Indians;
Abolish the Bureau of Indian Affairs;
Create a new office of Federal Indian Relations;
Remedy breakdown in the constitutionally prescribed relationships between the United States and Native Nations;
Ensure immunity of Native Nations from state commerce regulation, taxes, and trade restrictions;
Protect Indian religious freedom and cultural integrity;
Establish national Indian voting with local options; free national Indian organizations from governmental controls; and
Reclaim and affirm health, housing, employment, economic development, and education for all Indian people.
(Retrieved September 21, 2011 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Indian_Movement)
Standoff at Wounded Knee, 1973
 AIM took-over village of Wounded Knee on Pine Ridge
Reservation
 Where 1890 Massacre happened
 Context: Increased tensions between Whites and Indians
 Wesley Bad Heart Bull murdered in Buffalo Gap (west of
reservation)
 Not charged with murder, release on bail
 AIM led caravan to Custer, riot, Chamber of Commerce burned
 Anger over tribal chairman of Pine Ridge Reservation Dick
Wilson
 Nepotism
 Sold grazing leases to white ranchers, at too low of a rate
 Gov. award money for taking of Black Hills in 1877, Wilson
favored accepting money, even though many wanted Black Hills
returned
 Used Goon Squad to intimidate opponents
Wounded Knee Continued:
 Tribal supporters of AIM initiate impeachment proceedings
against Wilson
 Law enforcement including FBI swarmed onto reservation, to
protect BIA buildings
 AIM caravan to reservation to “protect” those against Wilson
 Impeachment proceedings at Calico Community Hall
continued
 Took over town of Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge
Reservation (chose the site for its symbolic value, i.e. the
1890 massacre) – for 71 days
 Shooting between occupiers and FBI (both sides had gunmen
who were killed)
 Attracted media attention
Wilson, never impeached, ran in elections
against Russell Means, Wilson reelected in
1974, lost 1976 election, ultimately died in
1990.
 Hank Adams negotiated an end to the standoff
 AIM members allowed to leave Pine Ridge
 Russell Means and Dennis Banks charged with murder, but
American Indian Center of Chicago: A
History
 Organized in 1953 by Indians in Chicago
 Assistance from American Friends Service
Committee (Quaker, 1917)
 Chicago was one of five original
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relocation cities
Board of Directors: Native Americans
elected from Chicago Indian community
Located in same location since 1966
Sponsored Powwows for 50 years
Model for other Indian centers
Mission of Chicago Indian Center: To promote the
fellowship among Indian people of all Tribes living in
metropolitan Chicago, and to create bonds of
understanding and communication between Indians and
non-Indians in this city. To advance the general welfare
of American Indians into the metropolitan community
life; to foster the economic and educational advancement
of Indian peoples; to sustain cultural, artistic and
avocational pursuits; and to perpetuate Indian cultural
values.
Tribes represented: Oneida, Ojibwa, Menominee, Sac
and Fox, and Potawatomi of the north woods, Lakota,
Navajo, Blackfoot, Papago
Other American Indian Centers
 San Francisco: Intertribal Friendship House, est. 1955, renamed
Friendship House Association of American Indians
 The mission of Friendship House is to promote healing and wellness
in the American Indian community by providing a continuum of
substance abuse prevention, treatment, and recovery services that
integrate traditional American Indian healing practices and evidencebased substance abuse treatment methods.
 Stanford American Indian Organization, est. 1970
 University students
 Minneapolis: Incorporated in 1974
 Mission: Provide excellent services that help meet the needs of the
American Indian community within a foundation of cultural values.
Conclusion
 Sustaining Figures
 Charles Eastman, Black Elk
 Tribal Leadership
 Roger Jourdain, Billy Frank
 Problems facing reservations
 Kinzua Dam, Garrison Dam
 Fish-ins
 Billy Frank, Hank Adams
 Red Power Movement
 Alcatraz, AIM, Trail of Broken Treaties, Standoff at Wounded
Knee