As George Washington had anticipated, British forces under General
William Howe departed from Halifax, Nova Scotia in the late spring
of 1776 and headed for New York City. The redcoats entered the
harbor in late June and on July 2 established headquarters on Staten
Island. Ten days later, Admiral Lord Richard Howe (William Howe’s
brother) arrived with additional forces. Over a period of several
weeks the British army grew to about 32,000 men, including more
than 8,000 mercenaries hired for service in America.
Washington had moved the Continental Army from Boston following
the British evacuation. He realized that New York City would be
difficult to defend, but its strategic and symbolic importance dictated that the effort be made.
Fortifications were erected around the city, which was then confined to the southern tip of
Manhattan, as well as on the Brooklyn Heights area of Long Island to the east of the city. The
Americans were unsure of where the British would choose to strike first.
Beginning on August 22, the British plan
began to become clear. Soldiers were
transported from Staten Island to Long Island
by way of Gravesend Bay. Meanwhile, on the
waters off New York City, Lord Howe
exchanged fire with American batteries on
Manhattan. Within a few days, 20,000 British
soldiers congregated in the vicinity of the
village of Flatbush. The American army of
10,000 was deployed in a series of fortified
positions on Brooklyn Heights and spread
across the surrounding Heights of Guan.
Several skirmishes occurred between small
bands of the opposing forces over the
following days.
On the night of August 26, British forces
under General Howe were able to take
advantage of intelligence provided by local
Loyalists, who identified an undefended pass
leading up to the Heights of Guan. Under the
cover of darkness British soldiers managed to
gain a position between American forces on
Guan and the main force on Brooklyn
Heights. In the daylight of the 27th the British
opened fire on astonished Americans, who
quickly recognized their dire situation.
Continentals under John Sullivan of New
Hampshire broke and ran. Fellow American commander William Alexander of Pennsylvania,
fought effectively for a while, but was slowly encircled by numerically superior British forces. It
was evident that disaster could be averted only by retreating down the hill and across the
swamplands by Gowanus Creek. Such a move, however, would expose the Americans to deadly
fire from the British in the hills above. To provide cover for the retreat, Alexander and Major
Mordecai Gist led a band of 250 Marylanders on a direct assault against the British lines. The
Americans broke under withering fire, but regrouped and bought sufficient time to allow the bulk
of the army to flee, often throwing arms aside, to Brooklyn Heights. Only a handful of the
Marylanders were able to escape. Alexander was eventually surrounded and he surrendered, and
Sullivan was captured.
The Americans listed about 1,400 casualties from the Battle of Long Island. The British toll
numbered fewer than 400. This embarrassing display was observed by a helpless Washington
from atop Brooklyn Heights. For the next two days, he and his army expected a British assault,
an event that would most likely had led to a decisive British victory. During this period of quiet,
the weather was unseasonably cold and a steady rain fell; American morale was at a low point
and many soldiers talked of surrender.
On the advice of his subordinates, Washington took advantage of British inaction and planned a
retreat to Manhattan. British control of the harbor and rivers made this a risky prospect.
Nevertheless, on the evening of August 29, the American army was ferried across the East River
in a flotilla of small craft provided by sympathetic civilians. The retreat was aided immensely by
calm waters that enabled the overloaded boats to make the crossing safely and by thick fog in the
early hours of the next day that masked the departure of the last soldiers — which included a
somber Washington.
The question remains about why the British did not use their
superiority on land and sea to strike a potentially lethal blow
against the Patriot cause. Most historians agree that William
Howe chose not to assault Brooklyn Heights because of his
earlier experience at Bunker Hill where he also commanded
an overwhelming force, but suffered extremely heavy losses.
The general decided instead to set up a siege, believing that
time was on his side. The failure of his brother, Admiral
Howe, to halt the retreat across the East River has been
ascribed to unfavorable winds that prevented his ships from
destroying the tiny American flotilla and its human cargo.
More recent historians, however, have argued that no ill wind
was blowing at the time and that the admiral, a friend of
America, was hoping to conclude affairs with a peace
settlement, not a military victory to conclude the Battle of
Long Island.
The closing months of 1776 had been dire for George Washington and
the Continental Army. Most recently, the losses of key forts had been
followed by a hasty retreat across New Jersey with the British, led by
Lord Cornwallis, in close pursuit. In early December, the Americans
found temporary safety by crossing the Delaware River into
Pennsylvania; those boats not used in the evacuation were destroyed,
making it impossible for the British to follow until ice formed.
Washington’s army had lost more than half of its men to illness,
desertion and enlistment expirations. Faltering morale received a badly
needed boost from Thomas Paine, who was serving as a volunteer
aide; the stirring words of his pamphlet The Crisis were read to the
soldiers on Washington's orders.
As Christmas approached, a Loyalist butcher named John Honeyman
was captured by American scouts in New Jersey and taken to Pennsylvania for an interview with
Washington. In actuality, he was an American spy who conveyed the news to his comrades that
Sir William Howe, the British commander, had called off Cornwallis’s pursuit and that their
armies would take up winter quarters on Manhattan Island and Staten Island; several positions in
New Jersey were to be manned by Hessian mercenaries. Honeyman was returned to Trenton,
where he informed Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall that the Americans were completely
demoralized and incapable of mounting an attack.
Washington’s decision to strike against positions in New Jersey was motivated by two factors:
 a desire to instill confidence in his soldiers with a surprise attack and victory
 the fear of his army's continuing evaporation by large-scale enlistment expirations
scheduled for the end of the year.
On the evening of December 25, the
American forces began to cross the
Delaware in what was intended to be a
three-pronged
offensive.
Weather
conditions, however, did not make the
passage easy. The heavily laden boats
had to avoid ice floes in the river and a
heavy snow storm turned to sleet. One
segment of the offensive never departed
from
Pennsylvania
and
another
succeeded in transporting its soldiers
across the river, but not its artillery;
those men returned to camp and did not
participate in the battle.
Washington had hoped to strike under the
cover of darkness, but the difficulties
encountered in the crossing delayed the attack
until about 8 a.m. on the 26th. The American
advance had been spotted earlier by a Tory,
who delivered a written warning to British
Colonel Rall. The colonel, however, was
intent on celebrating Christmas and had
stuffed the note in his pocket. Continental
forces under Nathanael Greene and John
Sullivan opened fire on the town and slowly
surrounded it. A sleepy Rall mounted his
horse and tried to rally his soldiers, but was
shot and died later from his wounds. Within
90 minutes it was evident to the Hessians that
they were outnumbered and escape routes had
been cut off; they surrendered.
The surprise victory at Trenton was important to the American cause for several reasons:



For the first time, Washington’s forces had defeated a regular army in the field. American
losses were extremely light; only two soldiers died and those apparently from exposure,
not enemy fire. The Hessians sustained more than 100 casualties and 900 of their soldiers
were captured. Several hundred Hessians escaped and presumably became American
farmers and tradesmen. Further, Washington gained six cannon, 40 horses and a vast
array of supplies that were quickly transported to Pennsylvania.
Washington's command was solidified. A growing number of delegates to Congress had
come to doubt his abilities, but those critics were quieted when news of the victory
arrived in Baltimore.
The victory sharply increased morale. New enlistments were stimulated and many of the
current soldiers reenlisted. This turn of events enabled Washington to execute another
daring move — the attack on Princeton on January 3.
Brief thought was given to pursuing the fleeing Hessians, but continuing bad weather and the
fact that American soldiers had discovered casks of rum ruled out that option.
Name: ______________________________________________________________________ Due Date:
Wednesday, 11-14
Please read the article on the Battle of Long Island and answer the following
questions.
1. Where did the redcoats establish their headquarters in the vicinity of New York
City?
2. Who was the British commander in New York, and how many men did he
command?
3. Where did Washington and the Continental Army establish their headquarters?
4. Explain the British battle plan.
5. How were Howe and the British Army able to overtake the Continentals?
6. How were the Continentals able to escape a complete rout by the British?
7. What was the overall casualty rate for both sides at the Battle of Long Island?
8. Why did the British choose NOT to “strike a potentially lethal blow” on Washington
and the Continental Army?
Please read the article on the Battle of Trenton and answer the following questions.
9. What British commander was closely pursuing Washington and his army as they
retreated across New Jersey into Pennsylvania?
10. How did Washington and his men prevent the British from following them across
the Delaware River?
11. What document was written to attempt to boost the morale of Washington’s army?
Who wrote it?
12. How was espionage used to help Washington mount an attack against the British?
13. Summarize the two reasons Washington decided to attack Trenton, NJ.
14. How did the weather impact Washington’s journey across the Delaware River?
15. Again, how did espionage play a role in the Battle of Trenton? How did the military
commander deal with the reconnaissance he received?
16. Summarize the outcome of the Battle of Trenton.
17. Summarize the three impacts of the Battle on the American fight for independence.