Theories and Theoretical
Approaches
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A modern science
Objective and systematic study of human
behaviour and society is a relatively new
development that began end of 18th century and
early 1900s.
Sociology appeared in Western societies where
change was greatest as a result of two main
developments which are French revolution
(1789) and Industrial Revolution.
These changes helped humanbeing to use
scientific analysis instead of religion or common
sensual knowledge.
Early Theories
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Positivism and Auguste Comte
Functionalism and Emile Durkheim
Conflict Theory and Karl Marx
Symbolic Interaction and Max Weber
Positivism
• The positivist approach assumes that the
behaviour of humanbeings, like behaviour
of things can be measured objectively like
in physical sciences. In other way
observation of behaviour is based on
objective measurement. Knowledge about
society is based on observation,
comparison and experimentation.
Auguste Comte
(1798-1857)
• Comte invented the word of sociology. For him sociology
is the last and the most complex discipline which could
be used as a means to contribute to the welfare of
society.
• All scientific disiplines share a common logic and
methods to reach a set of universal laws.
• Science should be absolutely value-free, totaly objective.
• Society operates according to certain laws, just as the
physical world operates.
• By understanding the causal relationship between
events, scientists can predict how future events will
occur.
The Development of Scientific Approach by
A. Comte
• Theological Stage: Human society is guided by
religion. Society is expression of God’s will.
• Methaphysical stage: World that is guided by
power of ideas since Renaissance (not God’s
will).
• Scientific Stage: Studying on physical world.
Comte’s contribution here was to apply the
scientific approach that are used in physical
sciences also in studying the human society.
Functionalism
• This approach states that various parts of society form a
complete system. To understand any part of society,
such as the family, religion, the part must be seen in
relation to other parts and to the maintenance of social
structure.
• The main parts of society, its institutions such as the
family, the economy, the education, and political system
are major aspect of the social structure.
• Functionalism assumes that a certain degree of order is
essential for the survival of society.
• It gives importance to moral consensus of society where
members of society share the same values.
Emile Durkheim
(1858-1917)
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Durkheim believed that a society can be observed by sociologist with the
same objectivity as natural scientists.
• Sociology must focus on social facts, aspects of social life like religion, state
and economy. Social facts can be investigated as things like any object or
event in nature. ’Social facts have their own reality outside the lives and
perceptions of individual people and have coercive power over individuals.
• Durkheim believed that social facts are crucial for understanding society.
Social facts point to social or group level explanation of behavior, such as
nationality, gender, and marital status.
• Drastic social change created ‘anomie’ which is aimlessness of social life.
• Durkheim stated that division of labour provides social change in a
positive way and shared values and customs hold society together with a
solidarity.
• Social solidarity occurs when individuals are integrated into social groups.
Industrial era made emerge a new type of solidarity.
• Durkheim divides social solidarity into two:
Mechanical solidarity: seen in pre industrials societies and appears low division
of labour, traditional, common experiences.
Organic solidarity: specialisation of tasks, economic interdependence,
recognition of others’ contribution, mutual dependency.
Robert K. Merton
A contemporary Functionalist
(1910-2003)
As a modern follower of functionalism, Merton
distinguishes the manifest and latent functions.
Manifest function is known and intended in a social
activity.
Latent function is unknown results of any social
action which participants are not aware.
Dysfuntional social action refers to challenging
aspect of social phenomena.
Karl Marx
(1818-1883)
• Marx is a well known representative and
inspirational source of the conflict theory.
• It is not ideas or values which social change is
stemmed but formed primarily by economic
influences. These are linked to the conflicts
between classes that provide the motive power
of historical development.
• Capitalism is the most important change in
modern times. It contrasts the production system
in history. Goods and services that are produced
are sold to wide range at consumers.
Capitalism and Class Struggle
• The most important development in modern time for Marx was
development of capitalism which is completely different from
previous economic systems.
• Capitalism has two items: capital and wage labour.
Capital is any asset including money, machines and factories. Capital
goes hand in hand with labour force people who do not have their
own livelihood.
Wage Labour have to find a job to survive provided by the owners of
capital.
• Society is divided into two main classes which are those who own
capital (capitalists, bourgeusie) and those who work for them
working class (working class, proleteriat). First group has means
of production like factories, machines and capital. Second group has
to find a job to survive provided by the owners of capital.
• Capitalism is a class system where the relationship between classes
are unbalanced and exploitative.
Materialist Conception of History
by Karl Marx
• Social changes are based on and stemmed from
economic reasons.
• Conflict between classes is motor of history.
• Social systems make a transition from one made of
production to another as a result of contradiction in their
economies.
• Basic historical stages for Marx are primitive communist
societies (hunters and gatherers), ancient slave system,
feudal system (division between landowners and serfs)
and capitalists (merchants and crafts people) overthrow
the feudal order.
• Workers’ revolution will bring socialist society in which
classes do not exist and economic system is under
communal control.
Conflict Approach
• This theory rejects the idea that society is a structure which aims to
develop within a harmony and with peaceful functions of all organs
in it. Division, power, inequality and struggle should be studied.
• This theory was developed as critical answer to functionalism.
According to this theory, sociology has to look at how factors such
as colour of skin, ethnic origin, gender are related with inequalities in
the society.
• Society is a complex which contains inequality, conflict, power,
struggle and change. Sociologists are using the social-conflict
paradigm to look at ongoing conflict between dominant and
disadvantaged categories of people: the rich in relation to the poor,
white people in relaiton to the people of color, men in relation to
women. Typically, people on the top strive to protect their
priviledges, while the disadvantaged try to gain more for themselves.
Max Weber
(1864-1920)
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Weber studied economics, law, philosophy, history and also sociology. By
comparing Chinese, Indian and Western religious and belief systems he
concluded that certain aspects of Christian beliefs become effective on the
rise of capitalism.
Societies differ primarily in the way that their members think about the
world. Ideas, especially beliefs values have transforming powers
Economic factors are important as Marx mentioned but ideas and values
have just as much impact on social change. The West has pure scientific
character. In Weber’s view, cultural ideas and values help shape society
and shape our individual actions.
‘Ideal types, pure form of social phenomena, as reference points to
understand the world, for different groups and diffrent time.
Development of bureaucracy is inevitable part of our time and it involves
experts.
Capitalism is not dominated by the class conflict but by the rise of science
and bureaucracy which is called ‘rationalisation’.
Symbolic Interactionism
• focuses on small-scale patterns of social interaction in
specific setting.
• sees society as product of the everyday interactions of
individuals. Humanbeings live in world of symbols.
• We attach meaning and significance to most of what we
do.
• Reality is how people define their surroundings,
identities.
• Human motivation causes social change.
• Sociology should focus on social action not structure.
Comparison Macro and Micro
Theories
• Macro sociology offers a general explanation of society as a whole
and studies larger groups, institutitions and social systems. Macro
analysis is essential to understand the institutional background of
daily basis is greatly affected by the broader institutional framework.
• The study of face to face interaction is usually called microsociology
which is a close-up focus on social interaction in specific situation.
• In fact, micro and macrosociologies are closely related and each
complements the other. Micro and Macro analysis are both used for
full creation of a situation.
• Despite impersonel communicative tools, we today have a face-toface contact with the people who we do not know. Face to face
interaction on the other hand is the main basis of broader
institutions.
Theoretical
Paradigm
Image of Society
Core Question
Functionalism
(Macro level)
A system of interrelated parts that is
relatively stable because of widespread
agreement on what is morally desirable;
each part has particular function in
society as a whole. Societies are made up
of specialized structures (the family,
religion, economy, politics, education
etc) and that each of these structures
performs a vital function in maintaining
the whole. Under normal conditions, they
work together to promote harmony and
stability.
How is society integrated? What are the
major parts of society? How are these parts
interrelated? What are the consequences of
each part for overall operation of society?
Social Conflict
(Macro level)
A system based on social inequality; each
part of society benefits some categories
of people more than others; social
inequality leads to conflict which in turn,
leads to social change. Structure of
society is the result of competition for
scarce resources. In order to understand
society it must be determined who
benefits from that pattern and how such
persons maintain their positions of
power.
How is society divided? What are the
major patterns of social inequality? How
do some categories of people try to protect
their privileges? How do other categories
of people challenge the status quo?
Social Action
(Micro level)
An ongoing process of social interaction
in specific settings based on symbolic
communication; individual perceptions
of reality are variable and changing.
Everyday interaction is determined by
the way people interpret events and
relationships.
How is society experienced? How do
human beings interact to create, maintain
and change social patterns? How do
individuals try to shape the reality that
others perceive? How does individual
behavior change from one situation to
another?