Chapter 1
The Sociological Perspective
“Seeing the general in the
particular” (Peter Berger)
What is Sociology?
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the systematic study of human society
and social interaction
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Sociologists use theoretical perspectives and
research methods to systematically examine
social behaviour
Sociology provides important insights on
pressing social issues–such as sexual assault,
suicide, and homelessness–in contemporary
societies
Sociologists…..
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Identify general social patterns in the
behaviour of particular individuals
See the strange in the familiar
Give up the idea that human
behaviour is simply a matter of what
people decide to do
 Understand that society shapes our
lives
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Why Study Sociology?
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Sociology helps us see the complex
connections between our own lives and
the larger, recurring patterns of the
society and world in which we live
reveals the limitations of myths
associated with commonsense
knowledge that guides out lives
C. Wright Mills (1959) said…
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We need to develop the sociological
imagination
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a "quality of mind" that "enables us to grasp history and
biography and the relations between the two in society."
A sociologist asks questions like:
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What is the structure of this particular society as a
whole?
Where does this society stand in human history?
What varieties of men and women now prevail in this
society?
The Sociological Imagination
and Obesity
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Is obesity a social issue or a personal
problem?
Watch The Sociological Imagination
from Sociology Live (2015)
Seeing Sociologically: the
Impact of Crisis
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Periods of change or crisis encourage
us to use the sociological perspective
Example – Durkheim was a
“conservative” sociologist
th century
 Social upheaval in the late 19
stimulated his investigation of social
order, functionality of society, and effect
of morality/religion

Seeing the Personal in the
Social – Emile Durkheim
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The power of society to shape
even our most private choices

Durkheim and Suicide (1897)
Found that lack of social integration
(weak ties to others) and the presence
of anomie (weaker norms) in society
affected suicide rates
 Especially true for males, Protestants
 His findings still hold true today
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Suicide (the School of Life, 2015)
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This brief video highlights some of
Durkheim’s ideas, especially the idea
that a strong sense of community leads
to lower suicide rates.
Suicide
Seeing Sociologically: the
Effect of Marginality
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People at the margins of social life are
aware of social patterns that others
rarely think about
Example – Montesquieu, a French nobleman
who tried to look at French society impartially
and sociologically wrote the Persian Letters
(https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Persian_Letters)
in 1721
 An attempt to describe society from the margins
through the viewpoint of two fictional Persian
“outsiders” and their correspondence
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The Development Of
Sociological Thinking
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Industrialization (the process by which
societies are transformed from dependence
on agriculture and handmade products to an
emphasis on manufacturing and related
industries)
Urbanization (the process by which an
increasing proportion of a population lives in
cities rather than rural areas) contributed to
the development of sociological thinking.
Sociological Theory
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Theory: a statement of how and why facts
are related
Theoretical Approach: A basic image of
society that guides thinking and research
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Structural-functional
Social-conflict (includes Gender-conflict and Race-
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Symbolic-interactionism
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conflict approaches)
Paradigm: the theoretical approach and its
particular research methodology
Early Social Thinkers
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Auguste Comte
Harriet Martineau
Herbert Spencer
Emile Durkheim
Karl Marx
Max Weber
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
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coined the term sociology
stressed the importance of positivism
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a belief that the world can best be
understood through scientific inquiry
Saw the sciences as a hierarchy with
sociology at the top
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Auguste Comte wanted to use sociology
to study society scientifically
Three-stages of historical development:
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Theological (society structured according to
God’s will – “supernatural” power)
Metaphysical (society is a “natural” system –
i.e. Thomas Hobbes wrote the Leviathan,
1651 on the need for a social contract)
Scientific (use of science to study society –
development of early positivism)
Harriet Martineau (1802-1876)
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
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Martineau - first female sociologist
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British social theorist and social reformer
Early feminist – critical of inequality
when studying society, one must focus on all aspects
of it – “public sociology”
Herbert Spencer – “survival of the fittest”
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Applied evolutionary theory to study of society
Wrote “Social Statics” (Comte’s term) which deals with
the conditions of social order
Founder of “Social Darwinism” – societies are evolving
organisms
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)
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“father of sociology” – most famous for:
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Division of Labour in Society
Rules of the Sociological Method
Suicide: A Study in Sociology
Credited with developing structural
functionalism and making sociology a
“science”
Sociology should study “social facts”
Structural-functionalism
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Macro level orientation
society is made up of interrelated parts,
each of which contributes to the
functioning of society as a whole.
stable patterns (social structure) which
have consequences or functions (social
functions) for society as a whole.
Latent and manifest functions (Merton)
sometimes the parts can be dysfunctional
for society
Structural functionalist
thinkers and critique
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Important Sociologists:
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Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer,
Robert K. Merton
Critique:
 Focusing on social stability and unity, ignores
inequalities
 Such inequalities cause tension and conflict
 The approach ends up being politically
conservative
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
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Developed socio-political theory of Marxism
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most famous works The Communist Manifesto
(with F. Engels, 1848) and 3 volume Capital
(Das Kapital, 1867)
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Concern with class conflict, exploitation and
alienation
Social-conflict theory
Social change occurs out of conflict
between groups in society (bourgeoisie vs
proletariat)
Social conflict theory
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Macro level approach
focuses on the social processes of
competition and power
resources and rewards are unevenly
distributed, and inequality produces conflict.
some groups may gain power and advantage
over others
Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are
linked to social inequality
Related Conflict Approaches
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Gender-conflict approach
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focuses on inequality and conflict between
women and men
Race-conflict approach
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focuses on inequality and conflict
between people of different racial and
ethnic categories
Social conflict theorists
Critique of social conflict theory
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Important Sociologists:
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Karl Marx, W.E.B. Du Bois
Critique:
Ignores how shared values and
mutual interdependence unify society
 If theorists pursue political goals,
cannot be scientific (not objective)
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Max Weber (1864-1920)
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Economist and socio-political theorist
Concerned about the “iron cage of
bureaucracy”
Famous for The Protestant Ethic and
the Spirit of Capitalism (1904)
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Capitalism developed out of Protestant
religious ideology
Ideals drive society and social change
Symbolic Interactionism
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Micro-level approach
Reality socially created through people’s
everyday interactions and symbolic
communication with one another
Focus on subjective meanings created
through interaction
Important Sociologists:
 Max Weber, George Herbert Mead, Erving
Goffman, George Homans & Peter Blau
Critique
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Ignores larger social structures,
effects of culture, factors such as
class, gender, ethnicity, and race
Other Approaches
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Postmodernism
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critical of modernism with a mistrust of grand theories
and ideologies
Human sciences cannot be scientific because of
human subjectivity
Deconstruct and demystify assumptions, hierarchies of
knowledge, and ideological motivation of social
science
Contemporary Feminism
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Advocate social, political, and economic equality for all
Use of a feminist research method – collaborative, in
depth, intimate in order to devolve control
Analysis of Religion through
the Three Major Approaches
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Structural functionalism:
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Religion promotes social cohesion. It binds the
community of believers together (Durkheim)
Religion helps maintain the social order. It
reinforces the norms and values of society.
Religion provides meaning, gives answers
about the universe.
Religion provides psychological support for
important events and in crises
Analysis of religion (cont.)
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Social conflict:
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Religion is the "opium of the people," lulling
people into passive acceptance of injustices
(Karl Marx).
Religion legitimates the social inequities in
societies.
Religion benefits the dominant group.
Analysis of religion (cont.)
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Symbolic interactionism:
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Each religious community has its own
definition of the sacred.
Religious communities have unique sets of
beliefs, rituals, and experiences.