Anatomical position – standing
upright with palms facing forward
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
Superficial anatomy breaks the body into
anatomical landmarks and regions
Sectional anatomy provides directional references
Figure 1.7 Anatomical
Landmarks
Figure 1.7a
Figure 1.7b
Figure 1.8 Abdominopelvic
Quadrants and Regions
Figure 1.8a
Figure 1.8b, c
Figure 1.9 Directional References
Figure 1.9
Planes and Sections are important
in visualizing structures

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Transverse plane divides the body into superior
and inferior
Frontal (coronal) plane divides the body into
anterior and posterior
Sagittal plane divides the body into left and right

Midsagittal divides the body exactly down the middle
Figure 1.10 Planes of Section
Figure 1.10
Body Cavities

Body cavities are internal chambers holding vital
organs
Cavities protect vital organs
 Cavities allow organs to change in shape and size


Two body cavities
Dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity and the
spinal cavity
 Ventral body cavity includes the thoracic cavity and the
abdominopelvic cavity

Figure 1.12a Body Cavities
Figure 1.12a, b
Thoracic Cavities


The thoracic cavity contains the heart and lungs.
It is subdivided into the left and right pleural
cavities and the mediastinum
Each pleural cavity contains one lung lined by the
visceral and parietal pleura
 The mediastinum contains the pericardium, another
serous membrane that surrounds the heart

PLAY
Animation: Heart Dissection
Abdominopelvic Cavity

The abdominopelvic cavity is lined by the
peritoneum

The abdominal cavity extends from the diaphragm to
the superior margins of the pelvis

liver, stomach, spleen and most of the large intestine
Abdominopelvic Cavity

The pelvic cavity is bordered by the pelvis, with a floor
of muscle

PLAY
reproductive organs, urinary bladder and the final portion of
the large intestine
Animation: Digestive System Dissection
Clinical technology allows many
different views of the body

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X-rays
Computerized tomography (CT) scans
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans
Ultrasound images
Spiral CT scans
Digital subtraction angiography images (DSA)
Positron emission tomography (PET) scans
Figure 1.13 X-rays
Figure 1.13
Figure 1.14 Common scanning
techniques
Figure 1.14
Figure 1.15 Special Scanning
Methods
Figure 1.15c
You should now be familiar with:


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The characteristics of life.
The sciences of anatomy and physiology and their
various subdivisions.
The levels of organization in the human body.
The definition and importance of homeostasis.
The terminology associated with superficial and
sectional anatomy and the body cavities.
Tissues and tissue types

Tissues are:

Collections of specialized cells and cell products
organized to perform a limited number of functions


Histology = study of tissues
The four tissue types are:
Epithelial
 Connective
 Muscular
 Nervous

Epithelial tissue

Includes glands and epithelium




Glands are secretory
Is avascular
Forms a protective barrier that regulates
permeability
Cells may show polarity
Functions of epithelium

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
Physical protection
Control permeability
Provide sensation
Produce specialized secretions
Specializations of epithelium

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Perform secretory functions
Perform transport functions
Maintain physical integrity
Ciliated epithelia move materials across their
surface
The Polarity of Epithelial Cells
Maintaining the integrity of
epithelium


Cells attach via cell adhesion molecules (CAM)
Cells attach at specialized cell junctions
Tight junctions
 Desmosomes
 Gap junctions

Intercellular connections
Structure of typical epithelium

Basal lamina attaches to underlying surface
Lamina lucida
 Lamina densa


Germinative cells replace short-lived epithelial cells
Classification of epithelia

Number of cell layers
Simple
 Stratified


Shape of apical surface cells
Squamous
 Cuboidal
 Columnar

Squamous Epithelia
Cuboidal Epithelia
Cuboidal Epithelia
Columnar Epithelia
Columnar Epithelia
Columnar Epithelia
Transitional Epithelium
Glandular epithelia

Exocrine glands


Secrete through ducts onto the surface of the gland
Endocrine glands

Release hormones into surrounding fluid
Glandular secretions can be:



Merocrine (product released through exocytosis)
Apocrine (involves the loss of both product and
cytoplasm)
Holocrine (destroys the cell)
Mechanisms of Glandular
Secretion
Glands

Unicellular


Individual secretory cells
Multicellular
Organs containing glandular epithelium
 Classified according to structure

A Structural Classification of
Exocrine Glands
Connective tissue functions:

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Establishing a structural framework
Transporting fluids and dissolved materials
Protecting delicate organs
Supporting, surrounding and interconnecting
tissues
Storing energy reserves
Defending the body from microorganisms
A Classification of Connective
Tissues
Connective tissues contain


Specialized cells
Matrix

Composed of extracellular protein fibers and a ground
substance
Connective tissue proper



Contains varied cell populations
Contains various fiber types
A syrupy ground substance
Fluid connective tissue



Contains a distinctive cell population
Watery ground substance with dissolved
proteins
Two types
Blood
 Lymph

Supporting connective tissues

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
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Less diverse cell population
Dense ground substance
Closely packed fibers
Two types
Cartilage
 Bone

Connective tissue proper

Contains fibers, a viscous ground substance, and a varied cell
population.

The ground substance is the non-living material in which the cells
and protein fibres are found.
 Can contain varying amounts of water.
 Can be of viscous (blood), semi-solid (cartilage) or solid (bone).

The ground substance and the extracellular proteins form the
matrix.

Types of cells found in connective tissue:
Macrophage
 Adipocytes
 Mesenchymal cells
 Fibroblasts
 Melanocytes
 Mast cells
 Lymphocytes
 Microphages

Connective tissue proper

Three types of fiber

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
Collagen fibers
Reticular fibers
Elastic fibers
Connective tissue proper


Classified as loose or dense
Loose
Embryonic mesenchyme, mucous connective tissues
 Areolar tissue
 Adipose tissue
 Reticular tissue


Dense
Dense regular CT
 Dense irregular CT

The Cells and Fibers of Connective
Tissue Proper
Connective Tissue in Embryos
Adipose and Reticular Tissues
Dense Connective Tissues
Dense Connective Tissues
Dense Connective Tissues


Fluid connective tissues
Distinctive collections of cells in a fluid matrix
Blood

Formed elements and plasma

Red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets
Arteries carry blood away, veins carry to the heart
 Capillaries allow diffusion into the interstitial fluid


Lymph

Interstitial fluid entering the lymphatic vessels
Formed Elements of the Blood
Supporting connective tissues


Cartilage and bone support the rest of the body
Cartilage
Grows via interstitial and appositional growth
 Matrix is a firm gel containing chondroitin sulfate
 Cells called chondrocytes
 Cells found in lacunae
 Perichondrium separates cartilage from surrounding
tissues
 Three types: hyaline, elastic and fibrocartilage

The Perichondrium and Types of
Cartilage
The Perichondrium and Types of
Cartilage II
The Perichondrium and Types of
Cartilage III
Bone, or osseus tissue

Has osteocytes


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Depend on diffusion through canaliculi for
nutrients
Little ground substance
Dense mineralized matrix
Surrounded by periosteum
Bone
Membranes are simple organs

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Form a barrier
Composed of epithelium and connective tissue
Four types
Cutaneous
 Synovial
 Serous
 Mucous

Membranes
Mucous membranes


Line cavities that communicate with the exterior
Contain lamina propria
Serous membranes


Line sealed internal cavities
Form transudate

Cutaneous membrane


Covers the body surface
Synovial membrane

Incomplete lining within joint cavities
Organs and systems are
interconnected

Network of connective tissue proper consisting of
Superficial fascia
 Deep fascia
 Subserous fascia

The Fasciae
Muscle tissue


Specialized for contraction
Three types
Skeletal
 Cardiac
 Smooth

Muscle Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Muscle Tissue
Skeletal muscle



Cells are multinucleate
Striated voluntary muscle
Divides via satellite cells
Cardiac muscle



Cardiocytes occur only in the heart
Striated involuntary muscle
Relies on pacemaker cells for regular contraction
Smooth muscle tissue


Non-striated involuntary muscle
Can divide and regenerate
Neural tissue


Conducts electrical impulses
Conveys information from one area to another
Neural tissue cells

Neurons


Transmit information
Neuroglia
Support neural tissue
 Help supply nutrients to neurons

Neural Tissue
Neural anatomy



Cell body
Dendrites
Axon (nerve fiber)

Carries information to other neurons
Inflammation and regeneration


Injured tissues respond in coordinated
fashion
Homeostasis restored by inflammation
and regeneration
Inflammatory response


Isolates injured area
Damaged cells, tissue components and dangerous
microorganisms removed


Infection avoided
Regeneration restores normal function
An Introduction to Inflammation
Aging and tissue repair




Change with age
Repair and maintenance less efficient
Structure altered
Chemical composition altered
Aging and cancer incidence


Incidence of cancer increases with age
70-80% of all cases due to exposure to
chemicals or environmental factors
Changes in a Tissue under Stress