“There is a brief but very informative biography of an individual
contained within the skeleton, if you know how to read it…”
—Clyde Snow, Forensic Anthropologist
1. Forensic anthropology is a type of
“applied anthropology” that specializes
in the changes and variations in the
human skeleton for the purpose of
legal inquiry.
2. Forensic Anthropologists with
expertise in archaeological methods
play an important role in the recovery
of human remains.
3. The need emerged for the
investigation of death and
injury for criminal purposes
4. They are trained to
understand the forms and
variations of the human
skeleton in individuals and
populations.
 complements the pathologist’s
emphasis on soft tissue.
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1. Interpretation of primarily outdoor death
scenes and postmortem processes - Forensic
Taphonomy
2. Recovery of scattered or buried remains –
Forensic Archaeology
3. Extrapolation of soft tissue based on skeletal
form
4. Biochemical interpretation of sharp and blunt
force injuries, primarily to the bone
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Identifying the victim or at least providing a
biological profile
Reconstructing the postmortem period based
on the condition of the remains
Providing data
regarding the death
event
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A forensic anthropologist may provide basic
identification information of skeletonized or badly
decomposed remains.
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From a whole bone or part of a bone, the scientist
may be able to determine:
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An age range
Sex
Race
Approximate height
Cause of death, disease, or anomaly
Study of bones
206 bones in an adult human
Function of bones:
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Provides structure and rigidity
Protects soft tissue and organs
Serves as an attachment for muscles
Produces blood cells
Serves as a storage area for minerals
Can detoxify the body by removing heavy metals and other
foreign elements from the blood
Age Determination
Most accurate estimations from:
 Teeth
 Pubic symphysis
 Epiphyses or growth plates
 Cranial sutures: the three major cranial sutures appear as distinct
lines in youth and gradually close from the inside out.
Investigators always use an age range because of the
variation in people and how they age. The investigator
does not want to eliminate any possibilities for
identification.
Sagittal suture
Sagittal suture completely closed
 Males—26 or older
 Female—29 or older
Sagittal suture is completely open
 Male—less than 32
 Female—less than 35
Complete closure of all three major
sutures
 Male—over 35
 Female—over 50
Lambodial
Coronal
The pelvis of the female is wider. Males have a narrow
subpubic angle (A) and a narrow pubic body (B).
Male
Female
Sub Pubic Angle
The ribcage and shoulders of
males are generally wider and
larger than that of females. In
addition, about one person in
twenty has an extra rib. This is
more common in males than in
females.
In males the index finger is sometimes shorter than the third
finger. In females, the first finger is sometimes longer than the
third finger. This is not often used as an indicator of gender as
there are many exceptions.
Is this a male or female hand
according to the above rule?
Race is difficult to determine from most skeletal remains,
especially since pure races are becoming uncommon. An
experienced forensic anthropologist can generally place skulls
into one of three groups:
 Caucasian—European, Middle Eastern, and Indian descent
 Negroid—African, Aborigine, and Melanesian descent
 Mongoloid—Asian, Native American and Polynesian descent
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Caucasoids—have a long, narrow nasal aperture, a
triangular palate, oval orbits, narrow zygomatic arches and
narrow mandibles.
Negroids—have a wide nasal aperture, a rectangular palate,
square orbits, and more pronounced zygomatic arches. The
long bones are longer, have less curvature and greater
density.
Mongoloids—have a more rounded nasal aperture, a
parabolic palate, rounded orbits, wide zygomatic arches and
more pointed mandibles.
The height of a person can be calculated by using the length of certain
long bones, including the femur, tibia, humerus, and radius. Below are the
equations to determine average measurements for both male and female.
(All measurements are in centimeters)
Male
femur x 2.23 + 69.08
tibia x 2.39 + 81.68
humerus x 2.97 + 73.57
radius x 3.65 + 80.40
Female
femur x 2.21 +61.41
tibia x 2.53 + 72.57
humerus x 3.14 + 64.97
radius x 3.87 + 73.50
After determining the sex, age, and
race of an individual, facial features
can be built upon a skull to assist in
identification. Erasers are used to
make tissue depths at various
points on the skull. Clay is used to
build around these markers and
facial features are molded.
With a skull:
 Establish age, sex and race
 Plot landmarks for tissue thickness
 Plot origin and insertion points for
muscles
 Plot landmarks for facial features
 Select a dataset and mount
markers for tissue thickness
 Mount the eyes
 Model muscles on skull
 Add fatty tissue around
eyes and lacrimal glands
 Add eyelids
 Add the nose
 Add the parotid gland
 Add the ears
 Cover all with layers of skin
 Detail the face
John List killed his entire family, moved to a new town and assumed a
new identity. Seventeen years later, Frank Bender reconstructed what
he believed List would look like. It was shown on America’s Most
Wanted, and he was turned in by the viewers almost immediately. . .
looking very much like the reconstruction.
Check out more about this story on CourtTV’s crime library:
www.crimelibrary.com/notorious_murders/family/list/1.html
Bill Bass is a forensic anthropologist who has assisted law
enforcement with hundreds of cases. He established the
world’s first and only laboratory devoted to the study of
human decomposition at the University of Tennessee’s
Anthropology Research Facility.
It is known as “the body farm.”
The nickname of a two and a half acre research facility in Tennessee
developed in 1980 by Bill Bass where bodies are placed in various
conditions and allowed to decompose. Its main purpose is to observe and
understand the processes and timetable of postmortem decay. Over the
years it has helped to improve the ability to determine "time since death"
in murder cases.
Hic locus est ubi mortui viveuntes docent.
This is the place where the dead teach the living.
This anthropologist is
hard at work dusting
away material from
these imbedded
bones.
Picture taken at
Chicago’s Museum
of Natural History
Forensic experts may be called upon
to give information on the life and death
of humans and animals in unique
circumstances, including:
 Mass Murder (Oklahoma bombing, plane crashes, World Trade)
 Earlier man (mummies, Iceman, Lindow man)
 Historical Significance (Holocaust, uncertain death of famous
people)
 Prehistoric Animals (Dinosaurs)
Determining what T Rex looked like using the bone formation.
From this:
To this:
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Uses and methods of
Archeologists to
uncover remains
◦ Remote Sensing
◦ Precise Mapping
w/Spatial Relationships
◦ Evacuation methods
◦ Complete
documentation of soils
and artifacts
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Locating Remains:
◦ Participates in searches with law enforcement
◦ Done in unison with search and rescue teams,
cadaver dogs, or divers.
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The archaeologist, forensic anthropologist or
coroner usually does on-site identification of
remains to determine of they are human.
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Access to and within the
scene needs to be well
marked and limited.
The area surrounding
the site should be
processed for other
evidence.
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Area must be gridded
Entire area
photographed and
documented
Metal detector –
(optional)
Area is examined for
insects, or larvae,
associated with a
decomposing body
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A screening area is set up
– somewhere away from
the initial site
Clear the area for digging
Leaf cover is removed and
screened
Dirt is removed and
screened – section by
section
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The remains are excavated –
sometimes from the side to
preserve the stratification
patterns
◦ Trowels and brushes are
used
◦ All evidence on the body is
collected and packaged
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All sediment is screened
Photographs are taken at
regular intervals
The body should be completely
exposed before removing
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Carefully mapping artifacts on an X, Y, and Z
axis to assign Strata and relative date
Provides the ability to recreate and preserve
the find
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Collection of soil samples for macrobotanical recovery
Soils are carefully “floated” in water.
The lighter fraction (Seeds, pollens,
diatomes, phytoliths) float to surface.
Fraction is sorted and examined to identify
genre, family or species
Mrs. Elizabeth Selig – Instructing
students
Student screening for artifacts
The site has to be ‘squared’
off, and lined with string. This
is so the measurements are
accurate, and it helps the
sketcher make precise
representations.
If the site needs to left
overnight, it must be
covered. This protects it
from scavengers, rain,
and “whatever” else may
interfere.