Midterm Study Guide
• Sections in Reed Textbook…
• Chapter 1
– Introduction (1st 1-2 pages of chapter)
– The Information-Processing Approach
– The Growth of Cognitive Psychology
– Cognition’s Relation to Other Fields
• But NOT brain stuff
Midterm Study Guide
• Chapter 2
– Introduction
– Describing Patterns
– Information-Processing Stages
• But NOT Rumelhart’s model
Midterm Study Guide
• Chapter 3
– Introduction
– Bottleneck Theories
– Capacity Theories
– Automatic Processing
Midterm Study Guide
• Chapter 4
– Introduction
– Capacity
– Memory Codes
• But NOT Acoustic Codes in Reading
– Recognition of Items in Short-Term Memory
• But NOT Degraded Patterns
• And NOT Some Determinants of the Memory
Comparison Rate
Midterm Study Guide
• Chapter 5
– Introduction
– The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model
– Control Processes
• But NOT Judgment of Learning
• And NOT Allocation of Study Time
Midterm Study Guide
• Chapter 6
– Introduction
– The Levels-of-Processing Theory
• But NOT Implications for Verbal Rehearsal
– Supporting Evidence of the Levels-ofProcessing Theory
– Encoding Specificity and Retrieval
Midterm Study Guide
• Chapter 7
– Introduction
– Mnemonics Strategies
Theories of Memory
• Structural models – emphasize the
memory structures
– E.g., A-S model and sensory, Short-term, and
long-term memory
– i.e., emphasize where you put information in
memory
• Process models – emphasize mental
processes
– Emphasize what you do with information to
get it into memory
example
• Is this word in capital letters?
– TABLE  yes
– table  no
• Called structural processing (processing related to the
appearance of the stimulus)
• Would this word fit this sentence:
– He met a ________ in the street.
– FRIEND  yes
– Cloud  no
• Called semantic processing (emphasizes the meaning)
Sample experiment
• Imagine you answer a series of questions (both
structural and semantic) about a set of words
• Then, you are given a surprise memory test over
the words (incidental learning)
• Actual experimental results
– Much more likely to remember the words that
involved semantic processing than the words that
involved structural processing (Craik & Tulving, 1975)
Statement of LOP
• General pattern of results: material
processed semantically is more likely to be
remembered than material processed
structurally
• Led to Levels of Processing theory (Craik
& Tulving, 1972)
– How you process material determines how
well it stays in memory
LOP theory
• General rule: “deeper” (semantic) levels of
processing enhance memory
• “shallow” processing (structurally or
superficially) does not enhance memory
• Self-reference: process material in terms
of what it means TO YOU
– Self-reference effect – processing through
self-reference leads to superior memory
Encoding Specificity
• State-dependent memory: the state that
you are in when you learn influences how
well you will remember the material
– Optimal retrieval during a test occurs when
the testing state matches the learning state
– Supported by many studies include drugstates, mood-states, context effects (things
around you, e.g., the room)
Another process theory of memory
• Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP;
Thomson & Tulving, 1970)
– The effectiveness of a retrieval cue depends
on how well it relates to the initial encoding of
an item
– i.e., the cues at test should match the cues
during study for optimal remembering
Sample experiment
• During studying
– Some words learned through structural
processing
– Other words learned through semantic
processing
• During the test
– Typically, recall or recognition (usually done
through meanings or semantically
• Expected results: semantic best
Twist on old experiment
• What if we change test to be structural
– E.g., did you see a word that looked like:
– CLOOD  yes
• Expected results:
– According to LOP, expect semantic best
(deeper)
– According to ESP, expect structural test best
• Actual results: structural words best
TAP
• When memory is best if processing at test
matches the processing at study, we say
there is
– TRANSFER APPROPRIATE PROCESSING