STUDY GUIDE FOR THE FINAL EXAM – POLITICAL THEORY
Green Ideology
Leopold
1. What are the features of the “Ecological Conscience” as Leopold describes it?
Features of the ecological conscience as Leopold describes it is the absence of
responsibility and wholesome thinking towards the land we live on. For example, if one were to
join a supposedly pro-environmental group and participated in land friendly farming then they
are viewed as ecologically conscience. Unfortunately, this is not true because as soon as the
project is over or profits start to plummet then it is back to the primitive and polluted ways. This
is as far as education about being environmentally conscious has come where it teaches people to
do as much as they can for the land but without conscience there is no obligation to the land.
Leopold wants to urge people to realize that a paradigm shift in matters of conservation
which require intellectual emphasis, loyalties, affections, and convictions is required to really get
people to look at the bigger picture. To Leopold, advancements in environmental education will
not suffice if he is to drastically shift people’s attitudes. Without these qualities instilled in
present and future generations the relationship between land and people will continue to diminish
and eventually disintegrate.
2. Shiva
What does Shiva think is wrong with the logic of “development” as it is currently
understood and practiced in the Third World?
The author is a self described ‘ecofeminist’ and writes of the bond between feminism and
ecology. She further describes the unsustainability of modern development and how it is
destroying the world’s ecosystems and along with it, feminism.
According to the author, women represent the original providers as they provide life and
are the first providers to the children of the following generation, much like how the ecosystems
of the world provide with resources. As modern development occurs in ‘third world’ countries,
women become the ones who provide food and water for the poor that inhabit these countries.
They end up tilling the fields when industrial farming happens and they are essentially the
primary laborers for all the developments.
As with many forms of Western industrialization, the basic laborers are the first to be
discarded when the immediate resources for the developing area are finally depleted.
Fragmentation of the society follows, as women are no longer needed, and the society becomes
unsustainable, just the like the environment that was destroyed in the wake of development.
3. Why does Shiva think that the “recovery of the feminine principle” has
“revolutionary and liberational potential”
Shiva believes that the recovery of feminine principle has a revolutionary and liberation potential
because she argues that women foster not only to the people but to nature as well. It is because of
capitalism and the western view of women being incompetent or unproductive to produce in
nature. She has strong arguments that prove women in third world countries being able to
produce food using nature; it is men who destroy it. In addition it is the western view that men
have to be the head of the family, forces the idea to put more responsibilities on the men taking
them from the women and it shows that men are the ones who are unable to reproduce as
efficiently as women.
Berry
4. What does Berry mean when he argues that we need to re-imagine “a proper human
scale”?
Berry means fitting the human into the natural, for example fitting the human economy into the
natural economy in a way that both may thrive. A proper human scale allows different kinds of
other creatures to thrive as well as humans. One example of this scale is the scale of agriculture,
focusing only on the economic needs of humans, harms the soil and endangers the environment.
5. How does Berry describe the phenomenon of “interdependence”?
Berry explains the concept of interdependence as an original or organic experience in which
nature and humans needs one another to survive. Evidence from the past and present have proven
that this is a possibility that they two need one another to survive.
Foreman
6. Why does Foreman defend the idea of “putting Earth first in all decision, even
ahead of human welfare if necessary?” (p. 443.)
By ensuring that Earth comes first than human is actually for the longer future for the welfare of
human. If we put human need first than Earth we would destroy all of Earth diversity. Foreman
defends that the Earth can't accommodate the ever expanding human. Human will keep stringing
away Earth resource. We should try think of the Earth first for the future.
Liberation Ideology and Politics of Identitfy
7. Malcolm X
What, according to Malcolm X, are the defining features of black nationalism?
Malcom X explains that his main goal was to defy the degration and oppression imposed upon
black individuals by white individuals. Black nationalism is defined by interpreting civil rights as
the equality of opportunity. The concept does not focus on integration, it is to build on the the
black community in pride, economy, and self sufficiency. Malcolm explains that the search for
civil rights is justified because his families has invested, but has not collected.
8. In what ways does Malcolm x link the struggle for Civil Rights to the broader global
Human rights. What specific measures does he say should be taken by people who
are denied these fundamental rights?
Malcolm X establishes that black nationalism is not simply something against the white
man but rather it is something that is anti oppression and anti exploitation for all people. It so
happens that the group that is exploiting them happens to be white. Like the title of his essay he
implies that it is time for them to either take to the ballot or the bullet. Meaning that if their votes
to improve their living conditions do nothing they must use violence.
9. Mary Wollstonecraft
Wollstonecraft compares the corruption of women’s character with the corruption of the
wealthy by their riches. How does she think they are similar in important ways? How are
they different?
The corruption of a women’s character compared to control rich’s maintain over the
wealthy is the same on one level, that pleasure is the business that governs both ideas. Ideally it
becomes aware that necessity arises from the primordial pool and inherits the minds of humans
creating the want and need of certain artifacts that will grant, “notice” and honor in some cases.
But returning to the idea that women can be the same, it only becomes prevalent when women as
Wollstonecraft makes aware have a molding hand from society itself to be its choosing. In a way
women reflect the adopted virtues and morals that govern a society. Though one way the
corruption of women differs from the mandible grasp of rich’s over the wealthy, is by being
intangible. The wealthy are portrayed as wanting what they can physical hold and feel, an a way
proof that solidifies a goal or dream has been met. On the side of women and their corruption it
is intangible as women will follow like many other the falsesified notion of pleasure being a state
which one enters without toil and labor.
10. Olympe De Gouges
In article 6, de Gouges makes an argument in favor of rights for women, with reference to
crime and punishment. What is her point?
The point that de Gouges argues is that punishmentshould be equal amongst men and
women. She feels that women, in general, should have the same rights as men in all aspects of
life. Hence, her opinion was that if a woman committed a crime, she should be treated the same
way as a man and therefore punished in the same way if found guilty. She feels women, when
given the same rights as men, should be held responsible for their actions and when disobeying
the law.
11. Marilyn Frye
What sorts of examples does Frye give of the phenomenon of the “double bind”? Do you
find them convincing? Why or Why not?
In the excerpt of Marilyn Frye, the author talks about the oppression found in society. As a
feminist and activist, the author primarily focuses of feminism and the aspects of oppression in
regards to women. The author gives examples of the phenomenon of the “double blind” which
essentially applies to oppressed individuals, in which those individuals are reduced to censorship
or deprivation. This ultimately does not allow them to live in a truly free world. The main
example Frye gives that resonates with me personally is that of women and their sexuality. There
are two extremes in which women are seen in a negative light, that of neither being sexually
active or being sexual inactivity is acceptable. The woman who is sexually active is cast as a
whore and she is frowned upon within her environment. If she lacks sexual activity, she is prone
to being harassed by men and pressured into having sex. Within this society, I believe this
example is convincing of the term double-bind. Essentially the women in modern society is
damned if she does and damned if she does not; either way she is subject to ridicule. The other
primary example given by Fry is that of being cheerful and smiling. She states that if the
oppressed do comply with being cheerful, that is a signal of being passive and submissive. If the
oppressed refuse, they are seen as mad, mean, or unsafe. She further goes on to say that this
results in “rape, arrest, beating, and murder...” which I do not believe is true. I think this is a
great exaggeration because being the opposite of cheerful and smiling does not always or the
majority of the time result in “rape, arrest, beating, and murder…”
12. What does Frye say is so wrong about the “door opening ritual”? Marilyn Frye uses
the door opening ritual as an example of oppression. She says that men would open the
door to show some sort of small gesture, respect, manners. But Frye believes that “the
door opening” ritual is a false act. She says that Men will pretend they care to open the
door but instead they are brought up to think that every man should open the door for a
lady or that by opening a door for a women a man feels a sense of pride and an ego
booster. Furthermore she explains that opening the door for a lady offers no use,
questions why men don’t assist women when they are in situations of importance (i.e.
women’s rights, and equality). Frye also sees the door opening ritual as a message that
women are incapable of opening the door for themselves.
13. Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions
In reading this document, how many of its aims would you say have been realized by
American women? By women worldwide? Have the goals of the early feminists been
realized?
Most of the resolutions in the Seneca Falls Declaration of Sentiments and Resolutions have been
realized by American women, however there are some exceptions. The declaration states that no
woman may “placer her[self] in a position inferior to that of man” which unfortunately still
exists. In the American workplace, women statistically still receive less money than a man even
though they work the same job. However, the Fair Pay Act signed by President Obama is
working to level the gender gap. Worldwide, though, this resolution still has not been realized.
Sexual slavery is an example of how women worldwide are deemed as commodities for men.
The second to last resolution is still in progress of being actualized as well. The resolution states
to secure “an equal participation with men in the various trades, professions, and commerce.”
Although there are no ‘pink collar’ jobs anymore, a great deal of professions still have an
overwhelming uneven distribution between men and women. This is true especially in the STEM
field where women make up less than 30% of the job market (Huhman, Forbes). Moreover, early
feminists resolutions have not been completely realized yet we have made substantial progress in
America through policy changes that have given women a voice and opportunities, which will
hopefully reverberate worldwide.
14. John Corvino
According to Corvino, what are the 5 things people could mean by the claim that
homosexuality is “unnatural”? In brief, what is his response to each of these claims?
The five arguments for why homosexuality is unnatural are: It’s not normal for most
people, animals aren’t homosexual, it’s a lifestyle choice and they aren’t born that way, they’re
given an organ for certain reason and not to use it on the same sex, and lastly it’s seen as
disgusting. He says that it’s not really unnatural just because it’s unusual. There are many things
that are unusual in the world that aren’t considered unnatural, they’re just weird. The second
argument is just false because there have been studies that show animals have shown signs of
homosexuality. Also even if it was true, it’s not really a good example to compare a human being
to animal because there are great differences between the two. The third argument claims that
they are either born that way so it’s morally right and another side says no they choose that
lifestyle for themselves, which is why it’s immoral. Corvino argues that they’re both wrong
because just if you’re born with homosexual tendencies it doesn’t necessarily mean you will act
upon them and people don’t really choose to be homosexual because you can’t really choose
your sexual feelings towards someone. The fourth argument claims that people should use their
organs for only one thing and that is procreation. Corvino argues that there are many body parts
that can be used in multiple ways and that doesn’t mean someone has to use their private part for
only one thing. Sexual aren’t just used for procreation, but also for pleasure. Lastly, it’s seen as
disgusting, which isn’t really a valid argument for something being unnatural because there are
so many things in the world that are seen as disgusting as well, but aren’t seen as unnatural. I
think his arguments are pretty convincing, but then again the arguments used are pretty easy to
prove wrong or invalid. I also think that he makes a good about interpreting what people say
from what they actually mean because people do actually use these excuses to say that
homosexuality is unnatural and wrong, but it doesn’t really make sense and you know they’re
just saying it in a way where they don’t sound insulting. Basically all the arguments are just
people not liking homosexuality because they think it’s weird, but if you think something is
weird or gross then you just simply don’t participate in it.
15. In his conclusion, Corvino argues that when the nature and harm arugments fail,
homophobic people try to "change the subject," by asking: "But what about incest,
poloygamy, and bestiality?" That is, if we accept the legitimacy of homosexual
relationships, they ask, what would be the basis for preventing these other kinds of
relationships? Corvino finds such argument to be completely unconvincing. Why?
Corvino argues that there is no logical explaination between homosexuality and that of incest,
poloygamy, and bestiality. Critics aren't willing to accept homosexual relationshops because it
forces them to forgo the traditions they have been taught. Arguments from those for tradition
tend to favor "tried and true" ideas over unfamilar ones. Corvino states, "Just because they aren't
legitimate reasons to oppose homsexual relationships doesn't mean there aren't any reasons to
oppose incest, poloygamy, and bestiality."
16. Gustavo Gutierrez
What does Gutierrez argue that Christians should learn from Karl Marx?
Gutierrez argued that Marx in general helped man more aware of his socioeconomic
determinants as well as comprehends the exploitative tendencies one class has over another
throughout history and how this propagates poverty. He argues that we should learn from Karl
Marx is to help out the poor. Gutierrez then states Catholic Church and the Christian community
should do more in freeing the poor from poverty. In doing this they have to change a couple of
their traditions such as rituals and sacraments. So all in all make a better life for the poor.
17. On p. 407 Gutierrez argues that when people free themselves from psychological
oppression, they will have a new understanding of the relationship human beings
have to history. What is that new relationship?
The new relationship is that human beings will consider freedom as a historical conquest, they
will see that people are in a constant struggle to free themselves from oppression in society. They
will see history as a process in their journey to liberation. Once people have this understanding
of history they can strive for improving their futures.
18. What biblical sources does Gutierrez draw on to support liberation theology?
Gustavo Gutierrez references the texts of ecclesiastical magisterium, the Mater
etMagistra and a few other articles. He describes development based on these sources as
something people in poverty and suffering can aspire to, and blames the wealthy for their sins.
He draws a bigger picture when he describes third world countries competing against each other
to get aid from wealthier nations – much like how the poor aspire to obtain wealth and leave
poverty. Gutierrez continues to link the developmental processes of poor people and nations to
liberation, as liberation seems to be a blanket term for any way to achieve successful
development. Liberation is further described as an expression of aspirations of the socially,
economically or politically oppressed.
19. Singer
To illustrate his argument, Singer claims that someone doing a medical experiment
on an adult nonhuman mammal ought to be willing, as a matter of logic, to perform the
same experiment on an orphaned human infant. Why? Singer makes the claim that someone
doing a medical experiment on an adult nonhuman mammal ought to be willing to perform the
same experiment on an orphaned human infant because adult nonhuman mammals are aware of
whats going to happen and can feel pain. Therefore, Singer claims not willing to experiment on
an orphaned human infant would simply be discriminatory. Because human infants and adult
mammals share similar characteristics, the only thing left for the experimenter is to choose which
species he or she decides on.
Radical Islamism
20. Sayyid Qutb
What does Qutb mean by the term Jahiliyya ? What is the fundamental mistake
that it leads to, on his view?
Jahiliyya initially refers to the times before Islam where the people didn’t know about it (literal
meaning: the days of ignorance). According to Qutb, Jahiliyya is a state where people are
ignoring islam and are not using it as a reference in their lives, he says that the Western countries
and the whole world that follows them are living in Jahiliyya because they don’t believe in the
God of Islam, they are ignorant of the Divine guidance, rebels against God’s sovereignty and
therefore they puts men in God’s place, and let men control others. He also adds that this form of
jahiliyya claims that men have the right to create and decide their own rules and are not deriving
them from God or the Quran.
21. “What does Qutb believe that Islam can provide to the modern world that it
currently and chronically lacks?”
Qutb states that the modern world is becoming weak, because it no longer has its values.
He believes that the new leadership of Islam can provide these values and high ideals that have
remained undiscovered by mankind. He also believes that this will create a world where people
with become more accustomed to human nature.
22. What are the milestones to which Qutb refers and why are they important?
Some of the milestones that Qutb refers to is going against everything the west stands for and
reformers because their goals are to change the Islamic culture into something not needed. They
must protect their home at all costs. At all costs the democracy must be kept out because it
involves the obsolete rule of the people and not always the rules of god. Next would be to turn
Egypt into an Islamic state. That way everyone would be forced into becoming a radical muslim.
23. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini According to Khomeini, why does Islam require an
“Imam”, or all powerful religious leader in order to flourish?
According to Khomeini Islam requires an Imam so that order is preserved and unity is present in
the islamic community. The Imam also ensures that God’s laws are enacted and that people
follow God’s will for society. Following God’s will will ensure that society is on the right path,
it will then flourish. A spiritual leader will also ensure that dictators and power mongers will not
misconstrue God’s true will and law for the people.
24. Khomeini discusses the extent of Shari ’a, and the ways in which he believes it
would transform the world for the better. What sorts of behavior does shari’a lead
us to, according to Khomeini? How does he believe that its implementation would
change fundamental aspects of life in the Muslim world, and beyond?
Shari’a is the Islamic body of law. Khomeini discusses how it is naturally inclined to create
government and a good government at that. It is a government that would enact the will of God
as well as take care of all the descendants of the profits as well as the poor. It also provides an all
encompassing body of law that could help lead people into a way of life that is morally proper as
well as one that attempts to prevent corruption within the law itself.
Osama Bin Laden
25. What specific textual evidence drawn from Islamic scriptures do the authors of this
document cite to justify their attacks on Americans and other “infidels”?
The authors of the document cite “jihad” from the Holy Qur’an to justify their attacks on
Americans and other “infidels.” Jihad in its purest meaning is an Arabic word for “struggle”.
The struggle that the Qur’an talks about is when Muslims struggle both spiritually and physically
(for example: sinning and acting selfishly). It is a religious duty for all Muslims. However, it
has been interpreted wrongfully by the radical Islamists who take the meaning of jihad to mean
that they need to have a struggle or war with their enemies. To Islamists, their enemies are
Americans and basically anyone who they believe threaten their Islamic beliefs. It is based
upon this belief that radical Islamists tend to use any means possible, even acts of violence, to
protect their Islamic religion.