Section 6.1
Cognitive Development

Factors of Development
 Maturation
 Learning
 Genetic predisposition and environment
(nature vs. nurture)
 Developmental Niche
Cognitive Development

Types of developmental research
 Longitudinal research (correction)
 Cross-sectional design (correction)
Cognitive Development

Brain Development
 Universal baby characteristics in humans
○ Sucking
○ Grasping
○ Visual and auditory abilities
 Neuroplasticity
○ Mirror neurons?
 Chugani (1999) PET scan of brain
○ Little activity in cerebral cortex (higher level learning)
○ High activity in brain stem and thalamus (reflexes)
○ Also active in newborns:
 Limbic system (amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate cortex)
- Memory, emotional processing, and bonding
Cognitive Development

6-9 months
 Frontal lobes and prefrontal area of cortex begin
to function more fully.
 Growth in lower-lying areas of brain such as
hippocampus (memory) and cerebellum (body
movements.)

1 year
 Continued increase in glucose metabolism in
frontal cortex.
○ *continues to increase to above adult levels, but
levels out during adolescense.*

Pruning
Cognitive Development

Middle childhood
 Continued growth in frontal lobe.
○ Case (1991)
 hypothesize of brain change patterns that occur
between 5 and 7 enables frontal lobe to develop
more complex behaviors.
 Attention control, explicit plans, and engaging in selfreflection.
 Research came from people with damage to frontal
lobe who have no self-control or stick to plans.
Cognitive Development

Adolescence
 Able to think in more abstract ways
 Less dramatic brain change.
 Reorganization and myelinization occur in
higher brain.
○ Help with strategic planning.
○ Giedd (2004)
 Impulse control not fully developed until around 20.
 Longitudinal study using MRI scans every 2 years.
 95% of brain structure formed by age 5 or 6.
 Areas in prefrontal cortex grow again just before
puberty.
- Different parts of the brain mature at different times.
- Frontal cortex matures late.
Cognitive Development

Brain Development Theories
 How can brain research be used to
understand development and education
policies?
○ Enrichment programs
○ Governmental intervention programs for
disadvantaged children.
Cognitive Development Theories

Jean Piaget
 Swiss psychologist who studied his own
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children’s behavior.
Constructionist approach
Clinical Interview (open-ended)
“Genetic epistemology” schema emergence
Adaptation (innate repertoire of schemas)
○ Assimilation – new information integrated into
existing schemas.
○ Accommodation – altering existing schemas
because they no longer match new experiences.
Cognitive Development Theories

Jean Piaget
 Intelligent progresses through a series of stages.
 Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
○ Child learns through movements and sensations
(looking, touching, hearing, sucking, grasping, and
putting things in the mouth.)
○ Object Permanence – objects exist when they can no
longer be seen.
 4 month – will not look for object
 8 month – will continue to look for the object
 8 to 12 months – Will keep looking where object was found the
last time (even if child watches it hidden in a new place.)
 18 to 24 months – fully developed object perminance.
Cognitive Development Theories

Jean Piaget
 Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
○ Learn to speak
○ Think is symbolic terms (idea formations)
○ Single idea focus.
○ Egocentrism – Can only see the world from one’s
own viewpoint.
 Seen as cognitive limitation.
○ Conservation – physical properties remain the
same even if appearance changes.
 Conservation experiment on a glass of water.
 Li et al (1999) – repeated Piaget’s experiment with 486
Chinese children and found that the percentage of
children who get it right increases with age.
Cognitive Development Theories

Jean Piaget
 Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
○ Formal schooling
○ Start to use rules of logic in problem solving during
concrete tasks.
○ Problem solving more random than systematic.
 Formal operational stage (from age 12)
○ Can use formal, abstract logic.
○ Can mentally manipulate ideas, concepts or numbers and
can think hypothetically.
○ Perform problem solving in systematic ways.
○ Piaget believed that everyone reaches this stage by the
age of 20.
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ue8y-
JVhjS0&feature=BF&list=PLD040BA09E49C1E63&index
=1&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1
Cognitive Development Theories

Sigmund Freud
 Stages of psychosexual development
○ Oral Stage (0-18 months)
○ Anal Stage (18 months – 3.5 years)
○ Phallic Stage (3.5 years – 6 years)
○ Latency (6 years – puberty)
○ Genital (puberty – adulthood)
○ http://wilderdom.com/personality/L85FreudPsychosexualStagesDevelopment.html
○ http://www.a2zpsychology.com/great_psychol
ogists/freud_psychosexual_thoery.htm
Evaluating the theories

Piaget:
 Child-centered learning
 First to suggest a comprehensive account of cognitive
development. (basis for many primary schools.)
 Children are active in searching out knowledge and
constructing mental representations of the world.
 Small sample size and cultural bias.
 Competent thinkers instead of deficient (underestimated
children’s cognitive ability)
○ Cognitive capacities appear earlier than Piaget suggested.
○ Baillargeon and DeVos (1991) – object perminance
develops earlier than Piaget thought.
 3-month olds and carrot study.
 Underestimated the role of social learning.
Evaluating the theories

Freud
 Theory is very one sided (male
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development)
Almost impossible to test theories
Theories based on case studies, not
empirical research.
How can we know that a current behavior
was directly related or caused by a
childhood experience?
Freud studied adults and did not observe
children.
Cognitive Theories

Lev Vygotsky
 Had a sociocultural approach to cognitive
development.
 Argued that it is impossible to discuss the
process of children acquiring knowledge without
social environment and culture.
 Culture provides children what and how to think.
 Cognitive development based on:
○ Interaction with people.
○ Cultural tools:
 Specific tools used in culture (tractors, computers,
fishing gear.)
 Implicit and explicit rules or norms in culture.
Cognitive Theories

Vygotsky
 Zone of proximal development
○ Difference between self accomplishment and
that can be done with help.
○ Scaffolding
 Agreement with Piaget that new knowledge
is best learned by expanding existing
knowledge and abilities.
 Cooperative learning (instead of childcentered learning)
○ It is wrong to focus on a child in isolation.
Other Cognitive Information

Paul Krugman (economist)
 commented on findings of very poor families,
with low social status, experience high levels of
stress hormones.
 50% of children from poorest parents have the
risk of remaining in this situation.
 17.4% of children live below the poverty line.

Poverty is one of the major factor in
cognitive development.
 Factors include: poor nutrition, poverty-related
health problems, home environment, parenting
practices, living in poor areas with high crime
and unemployment.
Other Cognitive Information

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Inadequate food intake limits children’s ability.
Ernesto Pollitt (Professor of Paediatrics at University of
California)
 Nutrition and prenatal care for pregnant women, school breakfast
programmes, and special food supplement programmes for women and
children have a positive effect on cognitive development.
1/3 of children from low SES enter Kindergarten behind their
peers.
 After 4th year, 50% of those children do not meet the standard
for reading proficiency.
 Wertheimer (2003)

 Poverty children:
○ Less likely to be identified as academically gifted.
○ More likely to repeat a year in school.
○ Less likely to participate in extracurricular activities.
○ More likely to suffer from learning disabilities and developmental delays.
○ Less likely to enter university.
○ More likely to become teen parents and unemployed.
Other cognitive information

Pungello et al (2006)
 Benefits of the longitudinal Abecedarian Project
(1972-1977)
○ ½ of 111 participating children chosen at random for
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early educational intervention.
½ as control group.
Offered only to children from poor families.
Participants received all-day, centre-based care
throughout the year before kindergarten.
Still being followed.
Used educational games focusing on developing
cognitive and linguistic skills.
One-on-one adult-child interaction.
General health care.
Other cognitive Information

Major Findings of Abecedarian Project
 Children who participated in the early intervention program had
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higher cognitive test scores from the toddler years to age 21.
Academic achievement in both reading and math was higher
from the primary grades through young adulthood.
Intervention children completed more years of education and
were more likely to attend a four-year college.
Intervention children were older, on average, when their first
child was born.
The cognitive and academic benefits from this program are
stronger than for most other early childhood programs.
Enhanced language development appears to have been
instrumental in raising cognitive test scores.
Mothers whose children participated in the program achieved
higher educational and employment status than mothers whose
children were not in the program. These results were especially
pronounced for teen mothers.
Other Cognitive Information

Schoon et al (2002)
 Study in Britain that followed 30,000 individuals from
birth with 2 cohorts (1958 and 1970.)
 Found that children raised from low SES have
increased risk of poor academic performance and
poor success later in life.
 Hypothesized that being born into a relatively
disadvantaged family increases the probability of
accumulated risk factors.

Cumulative effect of positive or negative
factors related to SES.
 Werner and Smith (1992) – longitudinal study of
high-risk children found that 1/3rd had adjusted well
to adult life.
Cognitive/Identity Theorists

Eric Erikson
 Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 mths)
○ Drive and hope
 Autonomy vs. Shame & doubt (18 mths to 3yrs)
○ Self-control, courage, and will
 Initiative vs. Guilt (3-5yrs)
○ Purpose
 Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12yrs)
○ Method and Competence
 Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18yrs)
○ Devotion and Fidelity
 Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation (18-35yrs)
○ Affiliation and Love
 Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation (35-55 or 65 yrs)
○ Production and Care
 Integrity vs. Despair (55 or 65 to death)
○ Wisdom
 http://www.learningplaceonline.com/stages/organize/Erikson.htm
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Eric Erikson
 1. The world gets bigger as we go along
 2. Failure is cumulative.
 Stages of development
○ Trust vs. Mistrust (0-18 months) *Drive and Hope
 Oral sensory stage with an emphasis on mother’s
positive and loving care along with visual contact and
touch.
 If we pass this stage, we will learn trust and have basic
confidence in the future.
 If we fail we are constantly frustrated because our
needs are not met and may end up deep-seated feeling
of worthlessness and a mistrust of the world.
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Erikson
○ Autonomy vs. Shame *and doubt (18 months – 3
years) * Self-control, Courage, and Will.
 Learn to master skills for ourselves including finer motor
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development including toilet training.
We have the opportunity here to build self-esteem and
autonomy.
We learn right from wrong (the powerful “NO!” which is
a pain for parents, but develops important skills of the
will.
Vulnerable during this stage.
If shamed in the process of toilet training or other
important skills we may suffer from shame and doubt
of our capabilities and suffer from low self-esteem.
The most significant relationships are with parents.
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Erikson
○ Initiative vs. Guilt (3 – 5 years) *Purpose
 Experience a desire to copy adults around us and
take initiative in creating play situations.
 We experiment with the blueprint for what we believe
it means to be an adult. (play roles)
 Use the word “WHY?” to help explore the world.
 Involved in “Oedipal-struggle” but resolve this
through “social role identity.”
 If we are frustrated over natural desires and goals,
we may experience guilt.
 The most significant relationship is with basic family.
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Erikson
○ Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years) *Method
and Competence
 Similar to Freud’s latency stage.
 We develop a sense of industry through learning,
creating, and accomplishing numerous new skills and
knowledge.
 This is a very social stage where inadequacy and
unresolved feelings along with inferiority among our
peers have serious problems in terms of our selfesteem and competency.
 The most significant relationship is with school and
neighborhood. Less authority to parents.
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Erikson
○ Identity vs. Role Confusion (12-18 years) * Devotion
and Fidelity
 Up to this stage it’s all about what is done to us, now it’s based
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on what we do.
We attempt to find our own identity, struggle with social
interactions, and grapple with moral issues.
Our task is discover who we are as individuals within a wider
society.
Many go into a period of withdrawal and responsibility. (aka
moratorium)
Unsuccessful navigation of this stage can result in role
confusion and upheaval.
We tend to think in terms of ideals which are conflict free
rather than reality, which is not.
We find it easy to substitute ideals for experience.
We can develop strong devotion to friends and causes.
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Erikson
○ Intimacy and Solidarity vs. Isolation (18 – 35
years.) * Affiliation and Love
 We seek one or more companions and love with the
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initial stage as an adult.
We attempt to strive for mutually satisfying relationships
with marriage and friends while beginning to start a
family.
If we negotiate this stage successful, we experience
intimacy on a deep level.
If we are not successful, isolation and distance from
others may occur and the world seems to shrink as we
defend ourselves by feeling superior to others.
Our significant relationships are with marital partners
and friends.
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Erikson
○ Generativity vs. Self absorption or Stagnation (35 – 55/65)
* Production and Care
 Work is most crucial in our lives and we tend to be occupied with
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creative and meaningful work and issues surrounding our family.
This is the role we are “in-charge” which we’ve envied for a long
time.
Our task is to perpetuate culture and values of the culture through
our family and work to establish a stable environment.
Generativity comes through the strength in caring for others and
production of something that contributes to the betterment of
society.
We fear inactivity and meaninglessness.
We can become self-absorbed and stagnate as our children leave
home and we face major life changes including “mid-life crisis.”
Significant relationships are within the workplace, the community,
and the family.
Cognitive/Identity Theorist

Erikson
○ Integrity vs. Despair (55/65-death) *Wisdom
 Most of the life is preparing for the middle adulthood stage
while this is recovering from it.
 We can look back at our lives with happiness and a content
feeling with a deep sense of meaning that we have made
contributions which Erikson called integrity.
 We accept that death is a completion of life.
 Some reach this stage and despair at their experiences and
perceived failures.
 There may be a fear for death and a struggle to find a purpose
to their life.
 Some may feel they have all the answers and end with a
strong dogmatism that only their view has been correct.
 The significant relationship is with all of mankind “my-kind.”