Principles and Practices for Tomorrow’s Leaders
Gary Dessler
CHAPTER
11
Influencing Individual
Behavior and Motivation
The Environment of Managing
PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook
Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall, Inc. All rights reserved.
Chapter Objectives
After studying this chapter and the case exercises at
the end, you should be able to:
1. Explain to the manager why the pay-for-performance
incentive plan is not working.
2. Explain to the manager why his or her attempts to
empower the employees have been ineffective.
3. Determine if the job is amenable to job enrichment
and explain in detail how to enrich it.
4. Develop a behavior management program for the job
in question.
5. Analyze the performance problem and recommend
how to solve it.
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11–2
What Managers Should Know About
Individual Behavior
• Motivation
 The intensity of a person’s desire to engage in an
activity.
• The Law of Individual Differences
 A psychological term representing the fact that people
differ in their personalities, abilities, self-concept,
values, and needs.
• Three main approaches to motivation
 Need-based approach  Process-based approach
 Learning/reinforcement-based approach.
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11–3
Some Individual Determinants of Behavior
FIGURE 11–1
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11–4
Personality
• Personality
 The characteristic and distinctive traits of an
individual, and the way these traits interact to help or
hinder the adjustment of the person to other people
and situations.
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11–5
Personality Types
• Authoritarian Personality
 A personality type characterized by rigidity,
intolerance of ambiguity, the tendency to stereotype
others as being good or bad, and conformity to the
requirements of authority.
• Machiavellian Personality
 A personality type oriented toward manipulation and
control, with a low sensitivity to the needs of others,
the name of which refers to the sixteenth-century
political advisor Niccolò Machiavelli.
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11–6
Cattell’s 16
Personality
Factors
Source: Adapted from Gregory Northcraft and Margaret Neale,
Organizational Behavior (Fort Worth, TX: Dryden Press, 1994), p. 87.
Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 11–2
11–7
Measuring Personality
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
 A tool for measuring personality in the work setting.
 MBTI classifications:
 Extraverted
or introverted (E or I)
 Sensing or intuitive (S or N)
 Thinking or feeling (T or F)
 Perceiving or judging (P or J).
 The MBTI questionnaire classifies people into 16
different personality types (a 4 X 4 matrix)
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11–8
Measuring Personality (cont’d)
• Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) (cont’d)
 Different personality types (the 4X4 matrix) are
classified into one of four cognitive (thinking or
problem-solving) styles:
 Sensation–thinking
(ST)
 Intuition–thinking (NT)
 Sensation–feeling (SF)
 Intuition–feeling (NF)
 Some employers match the MBTI styles to particular
occupations.
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11–9
Four Examples of MBTI Styles and
Some Corresponding Occupations
FIGURE 0–3
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11–10
Abilities and Behavior
• Performance = Ability x Motivation
• Types of abilities
 Mental, cognitive, or thinking abilities
 Mechanical ability
 Psychomotor abilities
 Visual skills
 Specific learned abilities
(training, experience, or education)
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11–11
Self-Concept and Behavior
• Self-Concept
 The perceptions people have of themselves and their
relationships to people and other aspects of life.
• Self-Efficacy
 Being able to influence important aspects of one’s
world; the belief that one can accomplish what one
sets out to do.
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11–12
Perception and Behavior
• Perceptions
 How our personalities and experiences cause us to
interpret stimuli.
 Perceptions are influenced by:
 Personality
and needs (self-efficacy)
 Values (strong personal code of ethics)
 Stress (health and environment)
 Position in society or an organization
• Stereotyping
 Associating certain characteristics with certain
socioeconomic classes but not with others.
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11–13
Perception
FIGURE 11–4
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11–14
Attitudes and Behavior
• Attitude
 A predisposition to respond to objects, people, or
events in either a positive or negative way.
 Attitudes are important because they can influence
how people behave on the job.
 Good (or bad) performance is not necessarily
associated with good (or bad) attitudes.
• Job Satisfaction
 The measure of an employee’s
attitude about his or her job.
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11–15
Attitudes and Behavior (cont’d)
• The Job Descriptive Index measures five
aspects of job satisfaction:
1. Pay. How much pay is received, and is it perceived as
equitable?
2. Job. Are tasks interesting? Are opportunities provided
for learning and for accepting responsibility?
3. Promotional opportunities. Are promotions and
opportunities to advance available and fair?
4. Supervisor. Does the supervisor demonstrate interest
in and concern about employees?
5. Co-workers. Are coworkers friendly, competent, and
supportive?
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11–16
Need-based Approaches To Motivation
• Motive
 Something that incites a person to action or that
sustains and gives direction to action.
• Motivational Dispositions or Needs
 Motives that lie dormant until the proper conditions
arise bring them forth or make them active.
• Aroused Motive
 A motive that expresses itself in behavior.
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11–17
Need-based Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Maslow’s Needs-Hierarchy Theory
 People have a hierarchy of five increasingly higherlevel needs:
 Physiological,
security, social, self-esteem, and self-
actualization.
 Prepotency Process Principle
 People
are motivated first to satisfy the lower-order
needs and then, in sequence, each of the higher-order
needs.
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11–18
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
FIGURE 11–5
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11–19
Need-based Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Existence Relatedness Growth (ERG) Theory
 Alderfer’s theory of human needs focuses on three
needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
 Existence
needs are similar to Maslow’s physiological
and security needs.
 Relatedness needs are those that require interpersonal
interaction to satisfy (prestige and esteem from others).
 Growth needs are similar to Maslow’s needs for selfesteem and self-actualization.
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11–20
Need-based Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Herzberg’s Hygiene-Motivator (Two-Factor)
Approach
 Reduces Maslow’s hierarchy to:
 Hygienes:
lower-level (physiological, safety, social)
 Motivators: higher-level (ego, self-actualization) needs.
 Posits that the best way to motivate is to arrange the
job (job enrichment) so that it provides intrinsic
satisfaction of higher-level needs, since these needs
are constantly recurring and relatively insatiable.
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11–21
Summary of
Herzberg’s
Motivator–
Hygiene
Findings
FIGURE 11–6
Source: Adapted from
Frederick Herzberg, “One
More Time: How Do You
Motivate Employees,”
Harvard Business Review,
January–February 1968.
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11–22
Need-based Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Needs for Achievement, Power, and Affiliation
 The Need for Achievement
 A predisposition
to strive for success and the
satisfaction of accomplishing a challenging task or goal.
 The Need for Power
 A desire
to influence others directly by making
suggestions, giving opinions and evaluations, and trying
to talk others into things.
 The Need for Affiliation
 The
motivation to maintain strong, warm relationships
with friends and relatives.
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11–23
What’s Happening Here?
Source: David A. Kolb, Irwin M. Rubin, and James M. McIntyre, Organizational Psychology:
An Experiential Approach (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1971), p. 55.
Copyright © 2004 Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
FIGURE 11–7
11–24
Process Approaches To Motivation
• Adams’s Equity Theory
 People have a need for, and therefore value and
seek, fairness in employer–employee relationships.
 If a person perceives an inequity, a tension or drive
will develop in the person’s mind, and the person will
be motivated to reduce or eliminate the tension and
the perceived inequity.
 Employees
can do this by reducing what they put into
the job, or by boosting the magnitude of the rewards
they take out (or both).
 It matters less what the reality is than how the person
perceives his or her inputs and outputs as compared
with the other (referent) person’s.
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11–25
How a Perceived Inequity
Can Affect Performance
FIGURE 11–8
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11–26
Process Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Locke’s Goal Theory of Motivation
 People regulate their behavior in such a way as
achieve their goals.
 A person’s
goals provide the mechanism through
which unsatisfied needs are translated into actions.
 Unsatisfied needs prompt the person to seek ways to
satisfy those needs; the person then formulates goals
that prompt action.
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11–27
Process Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Goal Theory of Motivation Findings
 Specific, challenging goals lead to higher task
performance than specific, unchallenging goals, or
vague goals or no goals, when:
 Feedback
showing progress towards the goals is
provided.
 Appropriate task strategies are used when tasks are
complex.
 Individuals have adequate abilities.
 There is a commitment to accomplishing the goals.
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11–28
Checklist 11.1
Setting Effective Goals







Set SMART goals—make them specific,
measurable, attainable, relevant, and timely.
Choose relevant and complete results areas
(sales revenue, costs, and so forth).
Assign specific goals.
Assign measurable goals.
Assign doable but challenging goals.
Encourage participation.
Use management by objectives.
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11–29
Process Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 People are conscious agents who are continually
sizing up situations in terms of their perceived needs
and then acting in accordance with these perceptions.
• Motivation = E x I x V
 E represents expectancy (probability of success)
 I is instrumentality (correlation)
 V is valence (value of a particular reward)
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11–30
Process Approaches To Motivation
(cont’d)
• Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (cont’d)
 Expectancy
 The
probability that a person’s efforts will lead to
performance.
 Instrumentality
 The
perceived correlation between successful
performance and obtaining the reward.
 Valence
 The
perceived value a person ascribes to the reward for
certain efforts.
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11–31
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches To
Motivation
• Learning
 A relatively permanent change in a person that occurs
as a result of experience.
 Motivation based on experience tends to be
instinctive rather than a product of a deliberate
thought process (as is process-based motivation).
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11–32
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches To
Motivation (cont’d)
• B. F. Skinner and Operant Behavior
 Operant behavior
 Behavior
that appears to operate on or have an
influence on the subject’s environment.
 Contingent reward
 A reward
that is contingent or dependent on
performance of a particular behavior.
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11–33
Learning/Reinforcement Approaches To
Motivation (cont’d)
• Behavior Modification
 The technique of changing or modifying behavior
through the use of contingent rewards or
punishments.
 Behavior modification has two basic principles:
 Behavior
that leads to a reward tends to be repeated,
whereas behavior that leads to punishment tends not to
be repeated.
 It is possible to get a person to learn to change his or
her behavior by providing the properly scheduled
rewards.
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11–34
Motivation In Action: Ten Methods For
Motivating Employees
1. Set Goals
2. Use Pay for
Performance
3. Improve Merit Pay
4. Use Recognition
5. Use Positive
Reinforcement
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6. Use Behavior
Management
7. Empower Employees
8. Enrich the Jobs
9. Use Skill-Based Pay
10. Provide Lifelong
Learning
11–35
Use Pay for Performance
• Pay for Performance
 Compensation methods based on merit/performance
rather than across-the-board nonoutput-based pay.
• Variable Pay Plan
 A compensation plan that reduces or increases a
portion of an employee’s pay, depending on whether
the company meets its financial goals.
• Gainsharing Plan
 An incentive plan that engages employees in a
common effort to achieve a company’s productivity
objectives and in which they share in the gains.
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11–36
Checklist 11.2
How to Implement An Incentive Plan








Make sure effort and rewards are directly related.
Make the plan easy to understand.
Set effective standards.
View the standard as a contract with your
employees.
Get employee support for the plan.
Use good measurement systems.
Emphasize long-term as well as short-term
success.
Take the system into account.
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11–37
Improving Merit Pay
• Merit Raise
 A salary increase—usually permanent—based on
individual performance.
• Applying merit raises more intelligently
 Clarify performance standards before the
measurement period begins.
 Institute a performance appraisal system to
systematically and accurately evaluate performance.
 Award merit pay based on merit rather than as an
across-the-board increase in compensation.
 Tie award allocations to limited specific timeframes.
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11–38
Positive Reinforcement Rewards
MONETARY
 Salary increases or bonuses
 Company-paid vacation trip
Discount coupons
 Company stock
 Extra paid vacation days
 Profit sharing
 Paid personal holiday
 Movie/athletic event passes
 Free/discount airline tickets
 Discounts on company
products or services
 Gift selection from catalog
STATUS SYMBOLS




Bigger desk
Bigger office or cubicle
Exclusive use of fax machine
Freedom to personalize work
area
 Private office
 Cellular phone privileges
 On-line service privileges
FIGURE 11–9
Source: Several items under the job- and career-related category
are from Dean R. Spitzer, “Power Rewards: Rewards That Really
Motivate,” Management Review, May 1996, p. 48.
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11–39
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11–40
Use Behavior Management
• Positive Reinforcement
 Rewarding desired behavior; or the actual rewards,
such as praise or bonuses, given each time the
desired behavior occurs.
• Extinction
 Withholding positive reinforcement so that the
undesired behavior disappears over time.
• Negative Reinforcement
 Reinforcing the desirable behavior by removing
something undesirable from the situation.
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11–41
Use Behavior Management (cont’d)
• Punishment
 Applying penalties for the undesired behavior to
reduce the possibility that it will recur.
• Schedules of Reinforcement
 Continuous reinforcement
 Produces
rapid learning of behavior.
 Variable reinforcement
 Produces
sustained behavior.
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11–42
Options for Modifying Behavior with Reinforcement
FIGURE 11–10
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11–43
Performance
Improvement
Project
Worksheet
FIGURE 11–11
Source: Lawrence Miller, Behavior
Management: The New Science of
Managing People at Work (New York:
John Wiley, 1978), p. 18.
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11–44
Empower Employees
• Empowerment
 The act of giving employees the authority, tools, and
information they need to do their jobs with greater
autonomy and confidence.
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11–45
Enrich the Jobs
• Job Enrichment
 The inclusion of opportunities for achievement and
other motivators in a job by making the job itself more
challenging.
• Job Enrichment Techniques
 Form natural work groups.
 Combine tasks.
 Establish client relationships
 Vertically load the job.
 Open feedback channels.
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11–46
Enrich the Jobs
• Job Design
 The number and nature of specific tasks or activities
in a job.
• Job Enlargement
 An increase in the number of similar tasks assigned
to a job.
• Job Rotation
 The systematic movement of a worker from job to job
to improve job satisfaction and reduce boredom.
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11–47
How to Analyze PerformanceMotivation Problems
FIGURE 11–14
Source: Copyright Gary Dessler, Ph.D.
Suggested in part by “Performance Diagnosis
Model,” David Whetton and Kim Cameron,
Developing Management Skills (Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), p. 339.
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11–48