INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL
CHINESE PHILOSOPHY
Lecture 13
Conclusion: The End of Classical Age and
the Philosophy for the World Empire
Instructor: Masayuki Sato
佐藤將之
National Taiwan University
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The Outline of Presentation (1/3)
(1) Characteristics of the thought at the eve of
the Warring State period

a) Synthesis: The Lüshi Chuqiu

Historical Background

About Lü Buwei

The Characterisitic of Thought

b) Correlative Understanding: the Yizhuan
 c) Term “Change and transformation” as
the Key concept

The Outline of Presentation (2/3)






(2) Characteristics of the Qin-Han thoughts
a ) New Categorization of thought:
Sima Tan: “The Discussion of the Essentials
of the Six schools”
b) Predominance of Huang-Lao Thought
黃老思想 during the Early Han period
The Outline of Presentation (3/3)






c) The Rise of the Han Confucianism as the
Orthodox teaching of the Han dynasty
Shusun Tong 叔孫通
Lu Jia 陸賈
Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠: “Co-creative
sincerity”
(4) Why could the Han Confucianism
supersede the main stream position in the
Chinese thought ?
Qin’s Expansion during the Final
Stage for the Unification




The Zhou Dynasty ended in 256 BC.
As King Nan (周赧王 the last king ) died,
King Zhao advanced his army to occupy the
Zhou capital.
Qin conqured Han in 230, Zhao in 228, Wei in
225, Chu in 223, Yan in 222, Qi in 221.
Cf. Chu has been terminated Lu in 556 and
Xunzi has been appointed the magistrate of
Lanling province until 238.
The Lüshi Chuqiu :
A Historical Background

King Zhao of Qin 秦昭王 (307-251 BCE)
King Xiaowen 秦孝文王 (251-250)
Father of King
Zheng?
King Zhuangxiang 秦莊襄王
(Zichu 子楚 250-247)
Lü Buwei 呂不韋

King Zheng 秦王政 (247-221)



Unification of the Chinese world

The First Emperor 秦始皇 (221-210)
Lü Buwei 呂不韋

Lü Buwei was a merchant who made friends
with prince Zichu who was stayed in Zhao as a
hostage, and, with a huge amount of bribes, Lü
Buwei successfully persuaded the Qin court
into selecting Zichu as the successor of King
Xiaowen. As Zichu’s ascend to throne, Lü
Buwei has been appointed as the prime
minister.
The Purpose of the Compilation of
the the Lüshi Chuqiu



After the short reign of King Zhuangxiang, the 13year-old Zheng ascended to the throne of the Qin in
247 BCE.
Accordingly Lü Buwei was revered as regent
(literally, the “father of the state”).
Since the Zhou regime had already disappeared, Lü
Buwei had an ambition for presenting a new
blueprint to rule the world. He invited prominent
scholars from all over the China to proceed with
this project.
The Publication of of
the Lüshi Chuqiu




如荀卿之徒，著書布天下
Scholars such as Xun Qing (i.e., Xunzi) published
their discourses, and have become well-known to
the world.
“[….]有能增損一字者予千金。”
Anyone who can increase or decrease even only
single character to its content, I will then offer ten
thousand lumps of gold as a reward for the
correction ! (“The Biography of Lü Buwei”, The
Historical Records)
The Lüshi Chuqiu





The Lüshi Chuqiu (Mr. Lü’s Spring and autumn
Annals.
The Lüshi Chunqiu text comprises 160 chapter 篇,
and is divided into three major parts; “the Twelve
Almanacs 紀 (1-61)”, “the Eight Examinations 覧
(62-124)”, and “the Six Discourses 論 (125-160)”
Each Six Discourses consist of six chapters.
cf. 64 hexegrams of the Book of Change
(the representation of all the phenomena of the
world)
The contents of the the Lüshi Chuqiu


嘗得學黃帝之所以誨顓頊矣，爰有大圜在
上，大矩在下，汝能法之，為民父母。蓋
聞古之清世，是法天地。凡十二紀者，所
以紀治亂存亡也，所以知壽夭吉凶也。上
揆之天，下驗之地，中審之人，若此則是
非可不可無所遁矣。
“The Postscript of the Twelve Almanacs”
The contents of the the Lüshi Chuqiu

I have learnt the method with which the Yellow
Emperor has educated his successor Emperor
Zhuanxu […] The contents of “the Tweleve
Almanacs” shows the theory on order and disorder,
as well as rise and fall of a state, and the way to
know long and short lives, as well as good and bad
fortunes. With this method, one can precisely
master the rule of Heaven, Earth and human beings
so that all the matters on right and wrong, as well
as on “should do” and “should not do” will be
illuminated without slightest obscurity.
The Characteristic of
thought in the Lüshi Chuqiu



(1) The analogical manifestation of the order of
heaven and earth to the realm of the human
society
(2) The mastery of the principle for the change of
phenomena in order to make a right political
decision
(3) Various contents of socio-political discourses
of the Warring states’ masters have been included
to serve this theoretical purpose.
The Characteristic of
thought in the Lüshi Chuqiu




It is eclectic if we focus upon each of the
contents.
Cf. “Confucian parts”, “Mohist parts” or
“Daoist parts”, etc…
Instead, it shows high level of integration in its
contents if we focus upon the formation of the
text, and the way and theoretical purpose [i.e.
imitation of the Heavenly and Earthly way]
each argument served.
TheYijing 易經 and The Yizhuan 易傳


The Book of Changes, or Yijing 易經 or Zhouyi
周易. The Book of Changes has been one of five
or six venerated classics which were supposed to
have existed during the time of Confucius.
It consists the canonical part and the
commentarial part, called “The Ten Wings”
(Shiyi 十翼 ) or “The Yizhuan 易傳” .
TheYijing 易經 and The Yizhuan 易傳



The canonical part has a very ancient origin
and is perhaps, an early Zhou divination text.
The Commentarial part accumulated from the
Spring and Autumn to the Warring State period
(approximately 7-3 BCE).
The Commentarial part explains connects the
64 variations of the world phenomena as the
process of the change and transformation
(bianhua 變化).
The Characteristic of
thought in the Yizhuan 易傳
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Articles 52 & 65
The Characteristic of
thought in the Yizhuan 易傳
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Term “Chang and transformation”
as the Key concept



天尊地卑，乾坤定矣。卑高以陳，貴
賤位矣。動靜有常，剛柔斷矣。方以
類聚，物以群分，吉凶生矣。在天成
象，在地成形，變化見矣。
〈繫辭上〉
The Chapter “The Great Treatise I”
Term “Change and transformation”
as the Key concept

Heaven is lofty and honourable; earth is low.
(Their symbols), Qian and Kun, (with their
respective meanings), were determined (in
accordance with this). Things low and high appear
displayed in a similar relation. The (upper and
lower trigrams, and the relative position of
individual lines, as) noble and mean, had their
places assigned accordingly. Movement and rest
are the regular qualities (of their respective
subjects). Hence comes the definite distinction (of
the several lines) as the strong and the weak.
Term “Change and transformation”
as the Key concept


(Affairs) are arranged together according to their
tendencies, and things are divided according to
their classes. Hence were produced (the
interpretations in the Yi, concerning) what is good
[or lucky] and evil [or unlucky]. In the heavens
there are the (different) figures there completed,
and on the earth there are the (different) bodies
there formed. (Corresponding to them) were the
changes and transformations exhibited (in the Yi).
Trans. by James Legge
Term “Chang and transformation”
as the Key concept


(Affairs) are arranged together according to
their tendencies, and things are divided
according to their classes. Hence were produced
(the interpretations in the Yi, concerning) what
is good [or lucky] and evil [or unlucky]. In the
heavens there are the (different) figures there
completed, and on the earth there are the
(different) bodies there formed. (Corresponding
to them) were the changes and transformations
exhibited (in the Yi).
Trans. by James Legge
Term “Chang and transformation”
as the Key concept


天尊地卑，乾坤定矣。卑高以陳，貴
賤位矣。動靜有常，剛柔斷矣。方以
類聚，物以群分，吉凶生矣。在天成
象，在地成形，變化見矣。
〈繫辭上〉
Term “Chang and transformation”
as the Key concept


天尊地卑，乾坤定矣。卑高以陳，貴
賤位矣。動靜有常，剛柔斷矣。方以
類聚，物以群分，吉凶生矣。在天成
象，在地成形，變化見矣。
〈繫辭上〉
This work is from Wang ju-fong
http://album.udn.com/jufong/photo/6273388?o=new and used
subject to the fair use doctrine of Taiwan
Copyright Act Articles 52 & 65
This work is from Wang ju-fong
http://album.udn.com/jufong/photo/6273388?o=new and used
subject to the fair use doctrine of Taiwan
Copyright Act Articles 52 & 65
TheYijing 易經 and The Yizhuan 易傳


Thus, the statements on facts in 64 hexagrams in
the canonical part (i.e., prophecy for totally
unknown future) has been transformed into the
causal explanation between patterned phenomena
of which would correspondingly represent each
ethical meanings.
In this combination of explication on the
phenomenal change and their corresponding way
for living ethical life has laid the foundation for
Confucian worldview.
司馬談: 〈六家要旨〉


易大傳：「天下一致而百慮，同歸而殊涂。」夫
陰陽、儒、墨、名、法、道德，此務為治者也。
道家使人精神專一，動合無形，贍足萬物。其為
術也，因陰陽之大順，采儒墨之善，撮名法之要
，與時遷移，應物變化，立俗施事，無所不宜，
指約而易操，事少而功多。儒者則不然。以為人
主天下之儀表也，主倡而臣和，主先而臣隨。如
此則主勞而臣逸。至於大道之要，去健羨，絀聰
明，釋此而任術。夫神大用則竭，形大勞則敝。
形神騷動，欲與天地長久，非所聞也。
Sima Tan: “The Discussion of the
Essentials of the Six schools”


According to the “Great Commentary” to the
Changes: “All-under-Heaven are of one goal,
though they deliberate on it in many ways; they
return to the same destination, though their paths
differ. The Cosmologists (yinyang ), Confucians,
Mohists, Terminologists (mingjia), Legalists, and
The Way and its Virtue (daode) all strive to carry
out good governance. It is merely that the different
routes one takes in following their teachings differ
in their reflectiveness.
(Trans. By S. Queen: “Rethinking ‘school’ affiliation”)
Sima Tan: “The Discussion of the
Essentials of the Six schools”


The Daoists cause the essence and spirit of human
beings to concentrate and unify so when active they
unite with the formless and when tranquil they find
contentment in the myriad things. In devising
techniques, they follow the grand compliances of
the Cosmologists, select the best of the Confucians
and Mohists, and extract the essentials of the
Terminologists and Legalists.
(Trans. By S. Queen: “Rethinking ‘school’ affiliation”)
Predominance of Huang-Lao Thought
during the Early Han period

A political thought which has been associated with the
Yellow Emperor and the Laozi. The part of Laozi can be
identified with the thought in the extant the Book of Laozi.
The part of the Yellow Emperor is still unknown. A silk
manuscript text called “Huangdi Boshu (The Silk
manuscripts of the Yellow Emperor)” might be identified
with this school. However, the main contents of Huanglao
thought may have consisted of two ideas: (1) Non-action
and (2) The following the way of Heaven and Earth. This
thought has been greatly supported by the imperial family
(e.g. The Empress Dou) and feudal lords (e.g. Cao Shen,
chancellor) during early-mid Han period.

The Rise of Confucianism (1):
Shusun Tong 叔孫通
In the beginning of the Han dynasty, ministers and generals
were often drunken and rude. They even fought with each
other with weapons. Liu Bang (the First Emperor of the
Han) asked Shusun Tong to establish appropriate court
rituals. On Liu Bang’s request, Shusun Tong instructed 80
Confucian people to performed a magnificent ritual for
celebrating the installation of Chang’an palace. Liu Bang
was profoundly impressed by the power of rituals to make
people so sober and regulated, by saying: “It is not until
today that I came to know that the position of an emperor is
so noble!”
The Rise of Confucianism (2):
Lu Jia 陸賈（240－170 BCE）
賈曰： 「陛下以馬上得之、寧可以馬上
治之乎。文武竝用、長久之術也。使秦
并天下、行仁義、法先聖、陛下安得有
之。」
 帝曰：「試爲我著書。秦所以失、吾所
以得、及古成敗。」賈著書十二篇。毎
奏稱：「善」。號曰：《新語》。

The Rise of Confucianism (2):
Lu Jia 陸賈（240－170 BCE）

Lu Jia said “Your majesty has obtain the
position to rule the world by your force.
However, it is advisable to keep this position
by means of both force and cultural ways, if
your majesty wants your empire keep long.
Han the Qin dynasty practiced the Confucian
benevolence and duty and followed the way of
ancient sage as her model, you would not have
had a chance to rule the world like this!”
The Establishing Confucianism
as the State Teaching

Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒

（179－104 BCE）


The author of The Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and
Autumn Annals 春秋繁露 (82 chapters) .
He adviced the Emperor Wu, the most powerful
monarch durig the Han period, to select Confucianism
as the orthodox “state teaching” on which all the
education and policy principle have been built, and to
install the position of the “Erudite on the Five
Confucian Canons” (五經博士).
Dong Zhongshu’s “ cosmological or
eclectic Confucianism”


Dong’s Confucianism has been built on his
cosmological framework which has a
correlative dynamism between natural and
human spheres by means of Qi and YingYang as their medium.
On this conceptual framework, Dong argued
that the deeds of a ruler should cause a
corresponding results from natural worlds
(e.g., Heaven).
The Flow of the Influential Relationship
between Confucianims and Daoism
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
Cofucian and Mohist Ethical
Discourse
Jixia and Analytical discourse:
Inquiry into order of a country
The analogical
NonXunzi’s synthesis of Ethical
Imitation of Heaven
and Analytlical Discourse
Action
and Earth
Commentary
to the Book of
Change
Mr. Lü’s Spring
Shusun Tong’s
Huang-Lao
Lu Jia’s
and Autumn
Proposal of
Thought
Annals
Confuciaism
State Rituals
Dong Zhongshu’s Cosmological
Confucianism
Legalism of
Han Fei
Daoist model for the meaning of
the human existence
Assimilation by
Non-action to the
Way and Creative
Power/Virtue
The assimilation into the
Heavenly providence
means the departure
from human society !
Human society
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
Change
Transformation
Heaven – Earth Structure
The Five Elements
The Vital Breath (Qi)
Confucian model for the meaning
of the human existence
Assimilation by
Non-action to the
Way and Creative
Power/Virtue
Change
Transformation
Human society
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
Heaven – Earth Structure
The Five Elements
The Vital Breath (Qi)
Confucian model for the meaning
of the human existence
Assimilation by
Non-action to the
Way and Creative
Power/Virtue
Change
Transformation
Human society
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
Heaven – Earth Structure
The Five Elements
The Vital Breath (Qi)
Confucian model for the meaning
of the human existence
Assimilation by
Non-action to the
Way and Creative
Power/Virtue
The Practice of Rituals
and Social Norms enables
an individual ascend to
the position of a ruler
Human society
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
Change
Heaven – Earth Structure
The Five Elements
The Vital Breath (Qi)
Confucian model for the meaning
of the human existence
Assimilation by
Non-action to the
Way and Creative
Power/Virtue
The Practice of Rituals
and Social Norms enables
an individual ascend to
the position of a ruler
Human society
National Taiwan University Masayuki Sato
Benevolence
and morality
Change
Heaven – Earth Structure
The Five Elements
The Vital Breath (Qi)
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”




The Concept of Cheng 誠
It is translated as “sincerity” and
“Co-creativity” (Roger Ames).
It is the core value idea in the
latter half of The Book of the Mean.
Both Zhu Xi 朱熹 and anti-Zhu Xi Japanese
Confucianists cherished this idea very much.
It represent the psychological state of “sincerity”,
but it also has unique dynamism in its
manifestation.
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and used subject to the fair use doctrine of:
•Taiwan Copyright Act Articles 52 & 65
•Japan Copyright Act Articles 35


(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”




There are no usages of “cheng” basically preWarring States’ texts.
In its earliest usage in the Book of Rituals (Liji 禮
記), it appears to mean “sincere mind” when one
worships a deity.
In the Book of Mencius, it independently appears
(from the benevolence and righteousness).
In the Mencius, it means the virtuous power to
“move others” which is possessed by the person
who practice goodness (shan 善).
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”





In the Zhuangzi, it started to denote “providential
power of Heaven and Earth” which Daoist
practioners should follow.
吾與之乘天地之誠 (Xuwugui)
I will ride the process of co-creativity of Heaven
and Earth…
修胸中之誠，以應天地之情而勿攖。 (Xuwugui)
Nourish your co-creativity in your heart, and
repspond the essence of Heaven and Earth with out
disturbing it.
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
in the Xunzi


君子養心莫善於誠，致誠則無它事矣；唯
仁之為守，唯義之為行。誠心守仁則形，
形則神，神則能化矣。誠心行義，則理，
理則明，明則能變矣。變化代興，謂之天
德。
天不言而人推高焉，地不言而人推厚焉，
四時不言而百姓期焉，夫此有常以至其誠
者也。君子至德，嘿然而喻，未施而親，
不怒而威，夫此順命，以慎其獨者也。
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
in the Xunzi

Nothing is better than by sincerity to nourish the
mind/heart of a superior man. In order to attain the
perfection of sincerity, he will uphold no other than
benevolence and practice no other than
righteousness. If his mind/heart sticks to sincerity
and steadily upholds benevolence, then his
sincerity will be formed; if his sincerity is formed,
then [his virtue] will become miraculous; if [his
virtue] is miraculous, then he will enable things to
be transformed.
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
in the Xunzi

If his mind/heart sticks to sincerity and
practices righteousness, then his sincerity
will be in accordance with the principle [of
order]; if his sincerity is in accordance with
the principle [of order], then his mind/heart
will become bright; if his mind/heart is
bright, then he will enable things to be
changed. Change and transformation appear
in turn; this circle is called “the Heavenly
Virtue.”
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
in the Xunzi

Although Heaven does not say anything, men think
that Heaven is high; although Earth does not say
anything, men thinks that Earth is thick; the four
seasons do not say anything, people expect that the
seasons will regularly succeed each other. It is by
this regularity that sincerity is attained.
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”

[By the same token,] once a superior man enters
the [supreme realm of] Virtue, then he can make
people understand him without uttering a word;
he can be familiar with people without giving
any favours; he possesses an awe-inspiring
dignity without displaying his anger. All these
are accomplished by a superior man who
accords himself with the Mandate [of Heaven],
and pays a special concern about the integration
of his [moralities]. I follow
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”


In the Lüshi Chuqiu, it appears as a sincere state in
her/his mind that can be transmitted to others and
be able to change them.
This mediating function can be explained as
musical instrument metaphors (a resonance by
tuning fork)
Sincere state of
mind/heart
cheng
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”


In the Lüshi Chuqiu, it appears as a sincere state in
her/his mind that can be transmitted to others and
be able to change them.
This mediating function can be explained as
musical instrument metaphors (a resonance by
tuning fork)
Transmission of
essence (jing 精)
Sincere state of
mind/heart
cheng
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”


In the Lüshi Chuqiu, it appears as a sincere state in
her/his mind that can be transmitted to others and
be able to change them.
This mediating function can be explained as
musical instrument metaphors (a resonance by
tuning fork)
Sincere state of
mind/heart
cheng
The Analogical Relationship of Cheng
between Human and Natural Spheres
term/sphere subject
aspect 1
cheng 誠
of human
sphere
humankind 變化
transformation
into ethical self
cheng 誠
of natural
sphere
nature
(Heaven,
Earth,
four
seasons)
aspect 2
possible
translation
sincerity
嚜焉 (no words)
未施 (no charities) truthfulness
不怒 (no anger)
化
不言
transformation of (without words)
myriad things
providence
(3) The Concept of Cheng 誠:
“Co-creative sincerity”


In the Lüshi Chuqiu, it appears as a sincere state in
her/his mind that can be transmitted to others and
be able to change them.
This mediating function can be explained as
musical instrument metaphors (a resonance by
tuning fork)
The “receiver”
also becomes
virtuous.
Sincere state of
mind/heart
The Rule by non-verbal
ordinance
cheng
Why could the Han Confucianism
supersede the main stream position
in the Chinese thought ?



(1) The Han Cosmological Confucianism has incorporated
Daoist elements (concepts of change and co-creativity, vital
breath, and Heaven-Earth argumentative framework) into its
own.
(2) Moreover, Confucianism had a system of teaching (i.e.,
rituals and social norms) by which an ideal human sociopolitical order could be constructed.
(3) It is impossible to become any level of super human
Daoist sage in that human beings are only human.
Questions for further discussions



(1) What, do you think, were the reasons that
Confucianism has become the main stream of
Chinese thought?
(2) Why did the early Chinese thinkers focus upon
the concept of change and transformation so
closely ?
(3) Which text from the Analects to the
Commentary to the Book of Change has been the
most influential on contemporary Chinese values
and way of thinking and in what sense?
INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL
CHINESE PHILOSOPHY
This is the end of the whole course.
Thank you very much !
Masayuki Sato
佐藤將之
National Taiwan University
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