11th Grade
A.P. English Language and Composition Summer Assignment
PART ONE
Study the attached list of rhetorical terms, devices, and strategies. You will need them
to complete the written assignment, and you will be tested on them during the first week
of class.
PART TWO
First, read ONE of the following books of your choice:
Scarlett Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne
Animal Farm by George Orwell
Then, in addition to one of the above, you will also read:
• On Writing Well by William Zinsser
While reading the two books, you will need to keep dated reading logs with at least
twenty entries. You should have ten entries from your selected text and ten from the
Zinsser text.
To complete the logs, while you read, keep an eye out for examples of the rhetorical
terms, etc. detailed on the list. Find a quotation that serves as an example of each
technique you identify. Your logs should address varied devices and strategies.
Then, ask yourself: Why did the author choose a certain technique? What does it add
to the point she is making? Does it help develop the argument? Does it capture her
attitude toward the point she is making? What specific, individual words does she use
to reflect this attitude? Explain in your logs how these choices affect your
understanding of the point she is trying to make. Do they create a feeling, image, or
relationship for you (or any reader)? How are they persuasive? In short: you make an
observation of a certain use of language, you notice the effect(s) of that use of
language, and you explain how that use of language (the rhetorical term, device, or
strategy) enables the writer to reveal and communicate her purpose.
N.B.: Do not speed read. You will see more and get more out of the texts by reading
slowly, deliberately, thoughtfully. As Doctor Stephenson said in 1849, “There’s gold in
them thar hills.” Now go find it.
Log Example:
From an article entitled “This Is the Beat Generation” by John Holmes, originally
published in the New York Times Magazine on November 16, 1952. To understand the
context of the quotation (from the penultimate paragraph), read the whole article. You
can download it from several websites, including:
http://faculty.mansfield.edu/julrich/holmes.htm
“No single comparison of one generation against another can accurately measure
effects, but it seems obvious that a lost generation, occupied with disillusionment and
trying to keep busy among the broken stones, is poetically moving, but not very
dangerous. But a beat generation, driven by a desperate craving for belief and as yet
unable to accept the moderations which are offered it, is quite another matter.”
Parallelism
These two sentences mimic each other both in structure and diction, making them
parallel. Following the conjunction “but,” each begins an independent clause with the
subject “generation.” Immediately following this subject, an appositive interrupts both
clauses, and each appositive contains two verb phrases, the second of which is further
modified by a prepositional phrase. Both independent clauses then close. Holmes’s
first purpose is to clearly juxtapose the two generations by setting them side by side in
parallel sentences, making his readers understand the similarities between the
generations, the first of his two main arguments, and perhaps sympathize with the
younger generation. However, the first sentence contains an additional and small, but
important, phrase, “but not very dangerous.” Holmes’s omission of this phrase at the
end of the second sentence is key. The parallel structure uses contrasting concepts,
established with the “But” and “yet” conjunctions of the second sentence, leading the
reader to expect a contrasting statement to “but not very dangerous” to maintain the
parallelism. The parallel structure draws attention to the fact that the contrasting
statement is not present, making Holmes’s second argument that the beat generation
does, in fact, have potential to create literal change without his having expressly to write
it.
PART THREE
After completing all of the above, in a thousand-word typed response (that’s four pages
double-spaced), reflect on one of the quotations below. Include a word count at the end
of your response.
• “Writing in English is the most ingenious torture ever devised for sins committed in
previous lives. The English reading public explains the reason why.” - James Joyce
• The role of a writer is not to say what we can all say, but what we are unable to say.” Anais Nin
• “Easy reading is damn hard writing.” - Nathaniel Hawthorne
Consider your chosen quotation and think about what it says about writing and,
perhaps, society in general. The idea here is to reflect on the connections between the
pieces you have read and your chosen quotation, and, if possible, the connection
between writing and the writer. In creating your response, consider any or all of the
following questions to stimulate your thinking:
• What were your first impressions upon reading the quotation?
• How do you think Zinsser, and/or the author of the text you chose would respond to it,
based on what you see as your author’s views on the purposes and implications of
writing?
• Would you add or change anything about the quotation for it to fit the way you feel
about writing?
• Overall, how would you compare your views on writing among those you read in
Zinsser, your selected summer reading author, and one of the quoted authors above?
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Your written assignments (logs and reflective essay) are due on the first day of
class. Be prepared for a test on the rhetorical list during the first week of class.
A.P. English Language and Composition
Rhetorical Terms, Devices, and Strategies
Study the following list. Although the definitions are accurate, you will need to research
some of the terms further, especially to find illustrative examples. You will not have
your teacher with you, so it is imperative that you operate as a temporary autodidact.
You will need to know the terms and definitions to complete the written assignment, and
you will be expected to be familiar with them as of the first week of class. The first
section of the list is comprised of terms with which you are probably already familiar.
For your logs, find examples of the terms from the second section; you may use words
from the first section to help develop your log explanations.
SECTION ONE
diction - the word choices made by a writer
figurative language - language employing one or more figures of speech such as
metaphor, imagery, synecdoche, metonymy
rhetoric - The art of presenting ideas in a clear, effective, and persuasive manner
rhetorical devices - literary techniques used to heighten the effectiveness of
expression
rhetorical strategies - format or structure followed by a writer such as cataloguing,
comparison/contrast, process analysis
structure - the arrangement or framework of a sentence, paragraph, or entire work
style - the combination of distinctive features of a literary work such as diction, syntax,
tone, or figurative language
syntax - the patterns of formation of sentences and phrases from words
theme - a central idea of a work
thesis - a sentence that succinctly states a writer’s main point or message
tone - the attitude of a writer, usually implied, toward the subject or audience (also
called stance)
SECTION TWO
academic argument - writing that is addressed to an audience well informed about a
topic, that aims to convey a clear and compelling point in a somewhat formal
style, and that follows agreed-upon conventions of usage, punctuation, and
formats
accidental condition - in a definition, an element that helps to explain what’s being
defined but isn’t essential to it
ad hominem argument - a fallacy of argument in which a writer’s claim is answered by
irrelevant attacks on her character
analogy - a trope that involves an extended comparison between something unfamiliar
and something more familiar for the purpose of illuminating or dramatizing the
unfamiliar
anaphora - a figure of speech involving repetition, particularly of the same word at the
beginning of several clauses
antithesis - the use of parallel structures to call attention to contrasts of opposites
anthimeria - the use of a word as if it were a member of a different part of speech
antonomasia - use of title, epithet, or description in place of a name
apposition - consecutive expressions in which the second identifies or supplements the
first
argument - (1) a spoken, written, or visual text that expresses a point of view; (2) the
use of evidence and reason to discover some version of the truth
argumentation - rhetorical strategy leading an audience toward conviction, an
agreement that a claim is true or reasonable, of that a course of action is desirable
artistic appeal - support for an argument that a writer creates based on principles of
reason and shared knowledge rather than on facts and evidence
assumption - a belief regarded as true, upon which other claims are based
assumption, cultural - a belief regarded as true or commonsensical within a particular
culture
audience - the person or persons to whom an argument is directed
authority - the quality conveyed by a writer who is knowledgeable about his subject and
confident in that knowledge
background - the information a writer provides to create a context for an argument
backing - in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a warrant
balanced sentence - a sentence that employs parallel structure of approximately the
same length and importance
bandwagon appeal - a fallacy of argument in which a course of action is recommended
on the grounds that everyone else is following it
begging the question - a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the very
grounds that are in doubt or dispute
causal argument - an argument that seeks to explain the effect(s) of a cause, the
cause(s) of an effect, or a causal chain
cause and effect - a strategy which examines the causes and consequences of events
or ideas; the concept that that an action will produce a certain response to the
action in the form of another event
ceremonial argument - an argument that deals with current values and addresses
questions of praise and blame
character, appeal based on - a strategy in which a writer presents an authoritative or
credible self-image to dispose an audience to accept a claim
claim - a statement that asserts a belief or truth
classical oration - a highly structured form of an argument developed in ancient
Greece and Rome to defend or refute a thesis (includes exordium, narratio,
partitio, confirmatio, refutatio, and peroratio
confirmatio - the fourth part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer offers
evidence for the claim
classification/division - a strategy which involves sorting individual items into
categories (classification) and/or breaking a whole into parts (division)
colloquialism - informal words or expressions not usually acceptable in formal writing
comparison/contrast - strategy which analyzes how two or more things are similar
(comparison) and/or how two or more things are different (contrast)
complex sentence - a sentence with one independent clause and at least one
dependent clause
compound sentence - a sentence with two or more coordinate independent clauses,
often joined by one or more conjunctions
compound-complex sentence - a sentence with two or more principal clauses and
one or more subordinate clauses
connotation - the suggestions or associations that surround most words and extend
beyond their literal meaning, creating associational effects
context - the entire situation in which a piece of writing takes place, including the
purpose, audience, time and place of writing, influences, material conditions, and
attitude
conviction - the belief that a claim or course of action is true or reasonable
credibility - an impression of integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness conveyed by a
writer in an argument
criterion - in evaluative arguments, the standard by which something is measured to
determine its quality or value
cumulative sentence - a sentence in which the main independent clause is elaborated
by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases (also called loose
sentence)
deductive reasoning - reasoning in which a conclusion is reached by stating a general
principle and then applying that principle to a specific case
definition - a strategy which strives to inform the audience on what a term means and
how it is different from other terms in its class
definition, argument of - an argument in which the claim specifies that something does
or doesn’t meet the conditions of features set forth in a definition
deliberative argument - an argument that deals with action to be taken in the future,
focusing on matters of policy
delivery - the presentation of a spoken argument
denotation - the literal meaning of a word; the dictionary definition
description - a strategy characterized by physical descriptions, mainly relying on the
senses
dialect - a variety of speech characterized by its own particular grammar or
pronunciation, often associated with a particular geographic region
dogmatism - a fallacy of argument in which a claim is supported on the grounds that it’s
the only conclusion acceptable within a given community
either-or choice - a fallacy of argument in which a complicated issue is misrepresented
as offering only two possible alternatives, one of which is often made to seem
vastly preferable to the other
emotional appeal - a strategy in which a writer tries to generate specific emotions
(such as fear, envy, anger, or pity) in an audience to dispose it to accept a claim
enthymeme - (1) in Toulmin argument, a statement that links a claim to a a supporting
reason; (2) in classical rhetoric, a syllogism with one term understood but not stated
epideictic argument - see ceremonial argument
equivocation - a fallacy of argument in which a lie is given the appearance of truth, or
in which the truth is misrepresented in deceptive language
essential condition - in a definition, an element that must be part of the definition but,
by itself, isn’t enough to define the term (See also accidental condition and
sufficient condition)
ethical appeal - see character, appeal based on, and ethos
ethnographic observation - a form of field research involving close and extended
observation of a group, event, or phenomenon; note-taking; analysis; and
interpretation
ethos - the self-image a writer creates to define a relationship with readers, concerning
especially authority and credibility
evaluation, argument of - an argument in which the claim specifies that something
does or doesn’t meet established criteria
evidence - material offered to support an argument
example, definition by - a definition that operates by identifying individual
example of what’s being defined
exemplification - a strategy in which one or more particular cases, or examples, are
used to illustrate or explain a general point or an abstract concept
exordium - the first part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer tries to win
the attention and goodwill of an audience while introducing a subject
experimental evidence - evidence gathered through experimentation; often evidence
that can be qualified
fact, argument of - an argument in which the claim can be proved or disproved with
specific evidence or testimony
fallacy of argument - a flaw in the structure of an argument that renders its conclusion
invalid or suspect
false authority - a fallacy of argument in which a claim is based on the expertise of
someone who lacks appropriate credentials
false analogy - a fallacy of argument in which a comparison between two objects or
concepts is inaccurate or inconsequential
faulty causality - a fallacy of argument making the unwarranted assumption that
because one event follows another, the first event causes the second (also called
post hoc, ergo propter hoc)
firsthand evidence - data (including surveys, observation, interviews) collected and
personally examined by the writer
fisking - blogosphere slang describing a point-by-point refutation that the writer finds
inaccurate or rhetorically suspect
flashpoint - a move in an argument that instantly raises questions about the logic of an
argument or whether a particular strategy is fair, accurate, or principled (See
fallacy of argument)
forensic argument - an argument that deals with actions that have occurred in the past
formal definition - a definition that identifies something first by the general class to
which it belongs (genus) and then by the characteristics that distinguish it
grounds - in Toulmin argument, the evidence provided to support a claim or reason, or
enthymeme
hard evidence - support for an argument using facts, statistics, testimony, or other
evidence the writer finds
hasty generalization - a fallacy of argument in which an inference is drawn from
insufficient data
hyperbole - use of overstatement for special effect
hypothesis - an expectation for the findings of one’s research or the conclusion to
one’s argument
idiom - an expression in a given language that cannot be understood from the literal
meaning of the words in the expression; a regional speech or dialect
imagery - use of details and descriptions to create sensory experience for the reader or
listener; the elements in a literary work that evoke mental images (pictures),
sensation, or emotion. Imagery can be visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory,
kinesthetic, or somatic.
immediate reason - the cause that leads directly to an effect, such as an automobile
accident that results in an injury to the driver (also known a proximate cause)
inartistic appeal - support for an argument using facts, statistics, eyewitness testimony,
or other evidence the writer finds
inductive reasoning - deriving general principles from particular facts or instances; the
method of science
intended readers - the actual, real-life people whom a writer consciously wants to
address in a piece of writing
invention - the process of finding and creating arguments to support a claim
inverted word order - moving grammatical elements of a sentence out of their usual
order for special effect
invitational argument - aimed not at vanquishing an opponent but at inviting others to
collaborate in exploring mutually satisfying ways to solve problems
invoked readers - the readers directly addressed or implied in a text, which may
include some that the writer didn’t consciously intend to reach
irony - use of language that suggests a meaning in contrast to the literal meaning of the
words
jargon - the specialized language or vocabulary of a particular group or profession
juxtaposition - placing words or phrases close together for comparison or contrast
line of argument - a strategy or approach used in an argument, such as emotional or
ethical appeals
logical appeal - a strategy in which a writer uses facts, evidence, and reason to make
audience members accept a claim
logos - see logical appeal
malapropism - the mistaken substitution of one word for another word that sounds
similar
metaphor - a trope that makes a comparison
metonymy - a trope in which a thing or concept is not called by its own name but by the
name of something intimately associated with the thing or concept
moral equivalence - a fallacy of argument in which no distinction is made between
serious issues, problems, or failings and much less important ones
narratio - the second part of a classical narration, in which a speaker or writer presents
the facts of the case
narration - a strategy which tells a story, usually chronologically
necessary reason - a cause that must be present for an effect to occur
non sequitur - a fallacy of argument in which claims, reasons, or warrant fail to connect
logically; one point doesn’t follow from another
operational definition - a definition that identifies an object by what it does of by the
conditions that create it
oxymoron - a figure or speech that combines contradictory terms
paradox - a seemingly true statement (or group of statements) that leads to a
contradiction or a situation which seems to defy logic or intuition
parallelism - use of similar grammatical structures or forms for pleasing effect
parody - a form of humor in which a writer transforms something familiar into a different
form to make a comic point
partitio - the third part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer divides up the
subject and explains what the claim will be pathos, appeal to - see emotional appeal
peroratio - the sixth and final part of a classical oration, in which a speaker or writer
summarizes the cause and moves the audience to action
persona - the facade or mask that one presents to the world; public image; social role;
tool or method of marketing
persuasion - the act of seeking to change someone else’s point of view or to move
someone from conviction to action
precedents - actions or decisions in the past that have established a pattern or model
for subsequent actions
premise - a statement or position regarded as true and upon which other claims are
based
process analysis - a strategy which presents a series of steps in order to obtain a
particular result; explanation of how something is done
propaganda - an argument advancing a point of view without regard to reason,
fairness, or truth
proposal argument - an argument in which a claim is made in favor of or opposing a
specific course of action
pun - a form of word play which suggests two or more meanings, by exploiting multiple
meanings of words, or of similar-sounding words, for an intended humorous or
rhetorical effect (also called paranomasia)
purpose - the goal of an argument
qualifiers - words or phrases that limit the scope of a claim
qualitative argument - an argument of evaluation that relies on nonnumerical criteria
supported by reason, tradition, precedent, or logic
reason - in writing, a statement that expands a claim by offering evidence to support it
rebuttal - an answer that challenges or refutes a specific claim or charge
rebuttal, conditions of - in Toulmin argument, potential objections to an argument
refutatio - the fifth part of a classical oration, in which the speaker or writer
acknowledges and refutes opposing claims or evidence
reversed structures - a figure of speech that involves the inversion of clauses
rhetorical analysis - an examination of how well the components of an argument work
together to persuade or move an audience
rhetorical questions - questions posed to raise an issue or create an effect rather than
to get a response
Rogerian argument - an approach that audiences respond best when they don’t feel
threatened, stressing trust and seeking common ground
satire - a form of humor in which a writer uses wit to expose - and possibly correct human failings
scare tactic - a fallacy of argument presenting an issue in terms or exaggerated threats
or dangers
scheme - a figure of speech that involves a special arrangement of words, such as
inversion
secondhand evidence - any information taken from outside sources, including library
research and online sources (see also firsthand sources)
sentimental appeal - a fallacy of argument in which an appeal is based on excessive
emotion
sibilance - alliteration or consonance using the sound of s or sh, often connotative of
serpents or allegorical evil
signifying - a verbal strategy of indirection that exploits the gap between the denotative
and figurative meaning of words
simile - a trope that makes a comparison using like or as
slippery slope - a fallacy of argument exaggerating the possibility that a relatively
inconsequential action or choice today will have serious adverse consequences
in the future
solecism - nonstandard grammatical usage
species - in a definition, the particular features that distinguish one member of a genus
from another
spin - a kind of political advocacy that makes any fact or event, however unfavorable,
serve a political purpose
stasis theory - in classical rhetoric, a method for coming up with appropriate arguments
by determining the nature of a given situation, such as a question of fact or a
question of quality
straw man - a fallacy of argument in which an opponent’s position in misrepresented as
being more extreme than it actually is, so that it’s easier to refute
sufficient condition - in a definition, an element or set of elements adequate to define
at term
sufficient reason - a cause that alone is enough to produce a particular effect
syllogism - in formal logic, a structure of deductive logic in which correctly formed
major and minor premises lead to a necessary conclusion
synecdoche - a trope in which a part of something is used to refer to the whole thing
synesthesia - figurative expression of the perception of one sense in terms of another
tautology - an unnecessary or redundant repetition of meaning, using different and
dissimilar words that effectively say the same thing twice
testimony - a personal experience or observation used to support an argument
Toulmin argument - a method of informal logic; its key components include claim,
reason, warrant, backing, and grounds
trope - a figure of speech that involves a change in the usual meaning of signification of
words such as metaphor, simile, and analogy
understatement - a figure of speech that makes a weaker statement than a situation
seems to call for (also called litotes)
values, appeal to - a strategy in which a writer invokes shared principles and traditions
of a society as a reason for accepting a claim
vernacular - the everyday, common speech of a particular country or region, often
involving nonstandard usage
warrant - in Toulmin argument, the statement (expressed or implied) that established
logical connection between a claim and its supporting reason
zeugma - a figure of speech in which two or more parts of a sentence are joined with a
single common verb or noun