ESSENTIALS OF
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Chapter 3
Contending Perspectives: How to Think
about International Relations Theoretically
What Is Theory?
Making Sense of
International Relations
• Theory is a set of propositions and concepts which
explains phenomena by specifying relationships
among the concepts.
• Theory generates hypotheses
• Specific statements positing a relationship
among variables
• By testing interrelated hypotheses theory is
verified and refined and new relationships found
The Individual Level of Analysis
• Personality
• Perceptions
• Choices
• Activities of decision makers
The State Level of Analysis
•
•
•
•
Characteristics of the state
Type of government
Type of economic system
Interest groups
The International Level of Analysis
• General characteristics of the interactions among
states and international organizations
• Includes the distribution of power among these
actors
Explanations for the United States’
Invasion of Iraq in 2003
by Level of Analysis
• Individual Level
– Saddam was evil leader who committed atrocities
– Saddam was irrational, otherwise he would have
capitulated to superior capability of the U.S. and
British coalition
– G.W. Bush and his advisers have targeted
Saddam since the late 1990s
Explanations for the United States’
Invasion of Iraq in 2003
by Level of Analysis (cont.)
• State Level
– U.S. must protect its national security; Iraq’s
weapons threaten U.S. security
– Ousting Taliban from Afghanistan was first step in
war on terrorism; Iraq is the second
– U.S. must be assured of stable oil supply; Iraq has
second largest oil reserves
– U.S. must not permit terrorist states access to
weapons
– U.S. national interest to build progressive Arab
regime
Explanations for the United States’
Invasion of Iraq in 2003
by Level of Analysis (cont.)
• International Level
– UN resolutions condemning Iraq had to be
enforced to maintain UN legitimacy
– Unipolar international system is uniquely capable
of responding to threats to stability
– There is international moral imperative for
humanitarian intervention to oust evil leaders and
install democratic regimes
Development of the
Liberal Tradition
•
•
•
18th century Enlightenment
» individuals are rational
» people have capacity to improve their condition
» Kant — anarchy is overcome through collective
action
19th century liberalism
» individual freedom and autonomy in democratic
state
» free trade and commerce create
interdependencies reducing likelihood of war
20th century idealism
» Wilson — war is preventable
Neoliberal Institutionalism
• Who do states choose to cooperate with?
• Prisoner’s dilemma — cooperation because in
self interest
• Institutions may be established for cooperative
purposes
Liberalism /
Neoliberal Institutionalism
Key actors
States, nongovernmental groups,
international organizations
View of the
individual
Basically good; capable of cooperating
View of the state
Not an autonomous actor; having many
interests
View of the
international
system
Beliefs about
change
Major theorists
Interdependence among actors;
international society; anarchy
Probable; a desirable process
Montesquieu, Kant, Wilson, Keohane,
Mueller
Realism: Basic Assumptions
•
•
•
•
•
Thucydides’ History of the Peloponnesian War
State is principal actor
State is unitary actor
Decision makers are rational actors
States need to protect themselves from foreign
and domestic enemies
Contributions Of
Other Realist Theorists
• St. Augustine — man is egoistic and selfish
• Machiavelli — promote use of alliances and
defensive strategies to promote the state
• Hobbes — states exist in an anarchic international
system
Contemporary Realism
• Morgenthau, authored Politics Among Nations (the
realist Bible)
— conflict is best managed through balance of
power.
• Kennan — author of U.S. containment policy to
prevent the spread of communism.
• Kissinger — practiced balance of power politics.
Not All Realists Agree On Policy
• Offensive realists—cannot be certain of enemy’s
intentions, so improve own power position.
• Defensive realists—defensive postures (military,
diplomatic, economic) do not directly threaten
other states.
Neorealism
Waltz, Theory of International Politics
• Structure of the international system determines
state behavior
• System lacks an overarching authority
• Importance of distribution of capabilities of states
• Balance of power among states is determined by
structure of the system
• International cooperation is unlikely because of
possibility of cheating
Many Realisms
• No single tradition of realism
• Agree on unitary autonomous state in an
international anarchic system
Realism / Neorealism
Key actors
View of the
individual
View of the
state
View of the
international
system
Beliefs about
change
Major theorists
International system, states
Power seeking; selfish; antagonistic
Power seeking; unitary actor; following its
national interest
Anarchic; reaches stability in a balance-ofpower system
Low change potential; slow structural
change
Thucydides, St. Augustine, Machiavelli,
Hobbes, Morgenthau, Waltz, Gilpin,
Mearsheimer
Radical Perspective
• Many radicalisms
• Core set of beliefs found in historical analysis of
Marx economic determinism, an international
hierarchy, and a commitment to social change
• Seek to explain relationship between means of
production, social relations, and power
Contending Interpretations
Of Radicalism
•
Wallerstein — historical development of worldcapitalist-system division into core, semi-periphery,
and periphery.
• Hobson — explains roots of imperialism, economic
expansion caused by overconsumption of goods and
underconsumption in other areas of the world.
• Dependency theories — states are constrained by
international economic system, including
multinational corporations; possibility of change is
slim.
Radicalism / Dependency Theory
Key actors
Social class, transnational elites,
multinational corporations
View of the
individual
Actions determined by economics class
View of the
state
An agent of the structure of international
capitalism and executing agent of the
bourgeoisie
View of the
Highly stratified; dominated by international
international
capitalist system
system
Beliefs about
Radical change desired
change
Major theorists
Marx, Wallerstein, Hobson, Lenin
Constructivism
• State behavior shaped by elite beliefs, identities,
social norms
• Individuals forge and change culture through ideas
and practices
• National interests are ever changing
• Source of power is ideas
• Material structures explain little; emphasis on
normative structures
Theory in Action: 2003 Iraq War
Liberals emphasize individual and state levels of
analysis
»
U.S. acts to eliminate threat of Saddam and his
support to terrorists
»
Goal of spreading democracy to a vital region
»
Dismayed by the weak international coalition
• Realists see international anarchy
»
Only the hegemonic U.S. can counter Iraqi
threat;
»
US seek to protect self from Iraq’s weapons of
mass destruction and secure oil supplies
• Radicals critical of U.S. need for Iraq oil
French View of U.S. Iraq Policy:
Theory in Practice
• Liberal View: France supports multilateral solutions
and international law; without UN approval, U.S.
actions are illegitimate; French public opposes U.S.
action
• Radical View: U.S. acting as imperial power;
France opposes that exercise of power
• Realist View: French opposition is based on its own
self-interest; France has become less secure after
the U.S. invasion; France seeks to balance U.S.
power; encourage a multipolar system
Contending Theoretical Perspectives
Liberalism /
Neoliberal
Institutionalism
Realism /
Neorealism
Radicalism /
Dependency Theory
Constructivism
Key Actors
States,
nongovernmental
groups, international
organizations
International
system, states
Social classes,
transnational elites,
multinational
corporations
Individuals,
collective identities
View of the
Individual
Basically good; capable
of cooperating
Power seeking;
selfish;
antagonistic
Action determined by
economic class
Major unit,
especially elites
View of the
state
Not an autonomous
actor; having many
interests
Power seeking;
unitary actor;
following its
national interest
Agent of the structure
of international
capitalism; executing
agent of the
bourgeoisie
State behavior
shaped by elite
beliefs, collective
norms, and social
identity
View of the
international
system
Interdependence
among actors;
international society;
anarchic
Anarchic; reaches
stability in
balance-of-power
system
Highly stratified;
dominated by
international capitalist
system
Nothing explained
by international
structures alone
Beliefs about
change
Probable; a desirable
process
Low change
potential; slow
structural change
Radial change desired
Belief in
evolutionary
change