INTRODUCTION TO
PROBLEM-SOLVING
Introduction to
Problem Solving








What is Problem Solving?
Positive Problem Solving
What is a Problem?
Types of Problems
What is a Solution?
Types of Solutions
Complex Problem Solving
Stages of Problem Solving
What is Problem Solving?




Problem Solving is the cognitive psychological
process of solving problems.
In simple terms, problem solving is the process of
moving towards a goal when the path to that goal
is uncertain.
One solves a problem every time they achieve
something without having previously known how to
do so. It ranges from something as simple as
correctly solving an algebraic equation, to tackling
the crisis of crime and violence on our streets.
What is Problem Solving?
Problem Solving

The key components of the process of
problem solving are:




The Problem – a situation or scenario creating
difficulty
The Answer – a remedy for the difficulty that
the problem requires
The Method – the means used to get an answer
The Solution – the whole process of solving the
problem, including the method of obtaining an
answer and the answer itself
Problem Solving


Problem solving is a ubiquitous feature of human functioning.
Human beings are required to solve problems on a daily
basis, from emotional issues in their personal lives, to
business problems in their capacity as employees or
organisational stakeholders, to political problems that may
concern society as a whole.
What constitutes problem solving varies from person to
person. For example:
 Young Children overcome the problem of immobility by
learning to walk.
 Students have to pass examinations.
 Business Managers are concerned with meeting deadlines
or production levels.
 Information Systems developers need to fulfil project
requirements when applying technological solutions.
Problem Solving



Therefore the degree of complexity in the problem solving
process involves an interaction of a person's experience
and the demands of the task.
Once we have mastered a skill, fully overcome a challenge
or achieved the required objective or goal, we are no
longer engaged in problem solving.
For a task to require problem solving again, novel
elements or new circumstances must be introduced or the
level of challenge must be raised.
Positive Problem Solving




There is a natural misconception that all problems have a
negative impact, and therefore problem solving is a
resource-wasting process.
However many problems and their subsequent solution
are healthy and have benefits for the individual,
organisation or society as a whole.
We learn and develop by overcoming obstacles and
challenges. Problem Solving serves as a form of
motivation. Successful resolution of a problem may be
celebrated as such.
Developing a positive, enthusiastic attitude towards
problems can transform one into a happier, saner, more
confident person who feels much more in control.
Positive Problem Solving
1.
A problem is an opportunity for improvement.
A problem can be a real break, the stroke of luck, an opportunity
knocking or a chance to get out of the rut of the everyday and
make yourself or some situation better. Note that problems need
not arrive as a result of external factors or bad events. Any new
awareness you have that allows you to see possibilities for
improvement brings a “problem” for you to solve. This is why the
most creative or innovative people are “problem seekers” rather
than “problem avoiders.”
Positive Problem Solving
2.
3.
A problem is the difference between your current state
and your goal state.
A problem can result from new knowledge or thinking. When
you know where you are and where you want to be, you have
a problem to solve in getting there. When you can identify the
difference between what you have and what you want, you
have defined your problem and can aim towards your goal.
A problem results from the recognition of an imperfect
present and belief in the possibility of a better future.
Hope produces problems - the belief that your hopes can be
achieved will give you the willingness to aim towards a better
future. Your hopes challenge you, and a challenge is another
definition of a problem.
What Is A Problem?
Some definitions of a problem include:
1.
A question to be considered, solved, or answered: a
mathematical problem; the problem of how to arrange
transportation.
2.
A situation, matter, or person that presents perplexity
or difficulty: the elderly man was having problems
breathing; he considered the main problem to be his boss.
3.
A misgiving, objection, or complaint: I have a problem
with his attitude.
4.
A state of difficulty that needs to be resolved: she and
her husband are having problems; urban problems such as
traffic congestion and smog.
5.
A source of difficulty or trouble: one problem after
another delayed the job.
Types of Problems
Well-defined problems
1.




In a well-defined problem, it is clear what the problem is
and the solution is clearly specified as well. That is, the
solution can be recognized clearly when arrived at.
Well defined problems often have generally known
solutions. They are solved using standard methods,
methods of similar problems, or methods of analogous
problems.
Problem → Analogous standard problem → Analogous
standard solution → Solution
Examples include: crossword puzzles, simple games, and
lower level mathematics, science or engineering.
Types of Problems
Ill-defined problems
2.



In an ill-defined problem, it is not clear from the beginning
what the problem is and thus, what a solution will be.
Therefore, prior to finding a solution, one must establish
what the real problem is. Specifying and solving the
problem develop in parallel and drive each other.
Ill-defined problems usually have unknown solutions. The
solutions found are often such that they could still be
improved and it is up to the problem solver to decide
when enough is enough.
Ill-defined problems include:

Computationally intractable problems

Approximate solutions

Unexplored problem domains
Types of Problems
Wicked problems
3.





Wicked problems are similar to ill-defined problems, just
much worse. Furthermore solutions are very difficult, if at
all possible, to recognize.
Defining or establishing the problem is “the problem”.
Wicked problems often contain contradictory requirements
and change over time.
There is uncertainty if the offered solution is the best
solution or is even a solution in the first place.
A wicked problem requires an inventive, creative or
insightful solution.
What is a Solution?



One often thinks of “solving a problem” in the sense of
making it go away, so that the problem no longer exists. This
indeed is one kind of solution, but it is not the only kind.
Some problems cannot be eliminated entirely, for example
the occurrence of illness. One can, however, create solutions
that will make each of these problems less harmful.
A solution is defined as: the management of a problem in
a way that successfully meets the goals established
for treating it. Sometimes the goal will be to eliminate
the problem entirely; sometimes the goal will be only
to treat the effects of the problem.
Types of Problems and Problem Solving Strategies
Types of Solution


There are two basic approaches to solving problems:
1.
the cause or source of the problem is attacked
– a “stop it” approach.
2.
the effects or symptoms of the problem are attacked
– a “mop it” approach.
STOP IT
A stop-it approach is designed to cure a problem, so
that, insofar as possible, the problem no longer exists.
There are three forms: prevention, elimination and
reduction.
Types of Solution

Prevention
Preventing a problem from occurring (or recurring) is the
ideal solution. The prevention approach is often a difficult one
to apply because it requires predictive foresight (“this might
be a problem someday if we don't act now”) and it is often
costly. And, of course, most problems crash into us
unexpectedly or for some other reason cannot be prevented.
Types of Solution


Elimination
Eliminating a problem once and for all is also an excellent
way of attacking a problem. Elimination solutions should be
considered in nearly every problem situation. However
elimination solutions can be expensive and politically
unpopular so they are not always feasible, for example, the
introduction of the smoking ban in bars and restaurants.
Reduction
Some problems, like garbage production, cannot be
eliminated entirely. In such cases, a strategy of reduction can
be highly effective. Almost any problem can be made less of
one by reducing its size, for example, recycling lessens the
amount of waste going into landfill.
Types of Solution


MOP IT
A mop-it approach focuses on the effects of a problem.
Treatment
Here the damage caused by the problem is repaired or
treated. Note two things: (1) by itself a treat-it solution is not
going to be nearly as effective as some form of stop-it
solution and (2) treat-it solutions are often needed in addition
to an elimination or reduction form of solution.
Types of Solution


Tolerance
The effects of the problem are put up with. Such effects are
taken for granted and measures are taken to endure them.
Redirection
Here the problem is deflected. Sometimes the problem will
simply be redefined as not a problem. A problem is a problem
only when someone defines it as such.
Problem Solving

Well-defined problems are rarely overly concerning issues.

Usually there is a simple process or procedure for dealing
with well-defined problems.


Algorithms are step-by-step problem-solving procedures,
especially an established, recursive computational procedure
for solving a problem in a finite number of steps.
Algorithms are most closely associated with computer
programming where they are used to solve common,
recurrent problems, for example searching or sorting a
collection of data.
Problem Solving




Heuristics are general ‘rules-of-thumb’ or simplifications
that serve as a guide in the solution of a problem.
Heuristics are usually picked up incidentally rather than
identified explicitly, maximizing what you already know and
have experienced.
Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not guarantee optimal, or
even feasible solutions, and are often used with no theoretical
guarantee since one is applying a process of “knowing by
trying rather” than following some preestablished formula.
While heuristics are suited to the solution of well-defined
problems, they may also be applied to more complex problem
domains.
Complex Problem Solving



Business and organisations are usually faced with much more
complex or difficult problem situations that would more
commonly be classified as ill-defined or wicked.
Some Examples include:

Cash Flow Difficulties

High Labour Turnover

Quality Assurance

Conflict Resolution
Such problems are firstly difficult to define and, furthermore,
extremely complex to resolve satisfactorily.
Characteristics of
Complex Problem Solving
1.
The problem cannot be understood until a solution has
been developed

There is no definitive statement of “The Problem.” The
problem is an ill-structured, evolving set of interlocking
issues and constraints.

One cannot understand the problem without knowing about
its context.

One cannot meaningfully search for information without the
orientation of a solution concept.

One cannot first understand, then solve.

What “the Problem” is depends on who you ask – different
stakeholders have different views about what the problem
is and what constitutes an acceptable solution.
Characteristics of
Complex Problem Solving
2.
Complex problems have no stopping rule

Since there is no definitive “Problem”, there is also no
definitive “Solution.”

The problem solving process ends when you run out of
resources, such as time, money, or energy, not when some
optimal or “final and correct” solution emerges.

For example, due to time or budget constraints, an
information system development may have to be scaled
down by excluding less essential functionality to assure
implementation of an adequate solution.

Herb Simon, Nobel laureate in economics, called this
“satisficing” - stopping when you have a solution that is
“good enough”.
Characteristics of
Complex Problem Solving
3.
Solutions to complex problems are neither entirely
right nor wrong

The determination of solution quality is not objective and
cannot be derived from following a formula.

Solutions are assessed in a social context in which many
parties are equally equipped, interested or entitled to judge
them as better, worse, good enough or not good enough.

Such judgements are likely to vary widely and depend on
the stakeholders’ independent values and goals.

The introduction of the smoking ban in pubs and
restaurants to address the problem of passive smoking has
met with applause from some quarters and contempt from
others.
Characteristics of
Complex Problem Solving
4.
Every complex problem is essentially unique and novel

There are so many factors and conditions, all embedded in
a dynamic social context, that no two complex problems
are alike, and the solutions to them will always be custom
designed and fitted.

Over time one acquires wisdom and experience about the
general approach to complex problems, but one is always a
beginner in the specifics of a new complex problem.

For example, project managers are adept in the process of
dealing with the issues that arise during a project. However
each project in itself is unique and will generate a whole
load of unique problems requiring their own solutions.
Characteristics of
Complex Problem Solving
5.
While every solution is a “one-shot operation,” every
attempt has consequences

This is the “Catch 22” about complex problems: you can’t
learn about the problem without trying solutions, but every
solution you try is expensive and has lasting unintended
consequences which are likely to spawn new problems.

For example, to address a city’s traffic congestion, the
metropolitan authorities may decide to build a ring-road
which routes traffic around rather than through the city
centre. However once in operation, it is found that
suburban access to the ring-road is inadequate, and thus
the solution has just moved the congestion rather than fully
eradicating the problem.
Characteristics of
Complex Problem Solving
6.
Complex problems have no given alternative solutions

There may be no solutions, or there may be a host of
potential solutions that are devised, and another host that
are never even thought of.

Thus, it is a matter of creativity to devise potential
solutions, and a matter of judgement to determine which
are valid, which should be pursued and implemented.

Such problems present themselves in Research and
Development activities and Product Innovation. There is
no solution for the development of new products and
services, and no way of devising which products will be
successful.
Stages of Problem Solving
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Problem Exploration
Goal Establishment
Idea Generation
Idea Selection
Implementation
Evaluation
Problem Exploration
A problem needs to be investigated, defined and, if
possible, broken into subproblems. The nature of the
problem is determined (sociological, personal,
technological, historical, etc).
1.



State the Problem
The problem should be described in the clearest
way it can be put.
A useful aspect of any definition or problem
statement is to state what the thing is not. By
clearly identifying what is not the problem, you'll
clarify what it is.
The problem should be iteratively restated in more
general or broader terms so as to isolate the
problem in itself from any verbal clothing.
Problem Exploration
2.



Clarify the Problem
The Key terms of the problem should be defined.
This allows the problem to be broken down into
attributes, components and general features, and
may shake loose some possible solutions.
Articulate the assumptions being made about the
problem and describe the way a solution would
have to work. Assumptions can be tricky because
they tend to be automatic and submerged, that is,
not consciously made.
Obtain necessary information such as past
approaches to the problem or to similar problems
in order to gain understanding of the nature and
environment of the problem itself
Problem Exploration
3.


Explain the Problem.
Discussing the problem with someone else has two
main benefits. Firstly the other party may
immediately provide the solution. Secondly
discussing your problem with someone allows you
to see what you really think since many theorists
believe that you don't really know what you think
until you consciously verbalize, even if there is no
intellectual feedback from the listener.
Looking at the problem from a variety of
viewpoints can generate a greater insight into the
problem domain. By taking on the viewpoints of
other people affected by a particular problem, you
can sometimes discover solutions that you as
yourself would never think of.
Problem Exploration
4.



Put the Problem in Context.
Determine the history of the problem. This will help
focus your efforts toward a solution to try or away
from a solution not to try.
Develop an awareness of the problem environment.
Understanding the contributing or perpetuating
factors will help you take the appropriate steps to
prevent a problem from coming right back once you
solve it. Similarly, studying how similar problems
have been solved may lead to a shortcut solution.
List the constraints and limitations that have been
imposed. What is required? What must be observed
in solving the problem? Perhaps Budgets, Temporal
Deadlines, Legal or Contractual requirements, etc
Goal Establishment
1.

2.

Consider Ideal Goals
What goals would provide an ideal solution? It is
important to set goals above the minimum solution
and consider how you would like reality to be
ideally.
Establish Practical Goals
What goals need to be achieved before the
problem is declared solved? The establishment of
definite and precise goals helps to clarify the
direction to take in solving the problem and gives
something tangible to aim at.
Idea Generation


Generate Ideas for Possible Solutions
Ideas can be stimulated from many sources reading, research, thinking, asking questions,
discussions,etc. Knowledge is power – gather and
utilise as much information as you can about the
problem.
Idea generation techniques such as brainstorming,
forced relationships and random stimulation
generate a large number of ideas of varying kinds
and practicalities, providing a good selection to
choose from, adapt, or stimulate other ideas.
Idea Generation

Allow time to incubate during the various phases
of idea generation. Idea generation is essentially a
process of creative thinking. Incubation allows
time to let the unconscious get to work, in other
words, “sleeping on the problem”. Stepping back
from hard thinking can often inspire the solution,
perhaps during a period of relaxation or when
dealing with a completely different situation.
Idea Selection
1.




Evaluate the Possibilities
Appraise each and every possible solution or approach.
Which possible solutions, either individually or in
conjunction with each other, will solve the problem?
It is important not to get fixated on the single solution
idea - two or three separate solution paths may be tried.
Consider “Plan B,” a possible solution that can be
implemented if the main plan doesn’t work - don't focus
on choosing just one solution and casting all else away.
This evaluation should uncover the solution that will be
the most effective (work best), efficient (cost the least,
whether in terms of money, time, emotions, etc.) and
have the fewest drawbacks or side effects.
Idea Selection
2.


Choose the Solution(s)
Select one or more solutions to try. The evaluation
process will usually have established some sort of rank
ordering. However the very top ranked solution is not
always the one chosen for implementation. Subjective,
emotional factors, intuitive feeling, etc. dictate the choice
away from conventional wisdom. It's just like hiring or
marrying someone - the person who looks best on paper
may not “feel” right, and therefore you may have a
preference for someone further down the list.
Allow others to see and criticize the selected solution and
to make suggestions for improvements or even
alternatives.
Implementation
1.


Try out the solution(s)
The real test of a solution is action. Once a solution path
is chosen, get to work on it. Don't worry if objections or
problems remain.
Give the solution sufficient time to work. Too hasty an
abandonment of a solution or solution path is as
common a problem as too obsessive a commitment. A
solution may take weeks, months or even years to work.
Good experienced judgment is crucial in determining how
long to wait before abandoning the choice.
Implementation
2.


Make adjustments or changes as needed during
implementation
Flexibility is critical in this application phase. Practically
every solution needs some modification in the process of
being put into effect. Blueprints are changed, scripts are
rewritten, your parenting methodology is adjusted. Don't
expect that your solution will be exactly as you originally
proposed.
The goal is to solve the problem, not to implement the
solution exactly as proposed.
Evaluation
1.
Investigate to determine whether the solution(s)
worked, and to what extent
Do modifications need to be made? Do other solutions need
to be selected and tried? Is a different approach needed?
One of the most frequent failures of problem solving is the
lack of evaluation of the implemented solution. Once a
solution has been chosen and implemented, people tend to
wander off, assuming that the problem is solved and
everything is fine. But the solution may not have worked or
not worked completely, or it may have caused other
problems in the process. Staying around long enough to
evaluate the solution's effectiveness is an important part of
problem solving.
Evaluation
2.
Remember that many solutions are better described
as partially successful or partially unsuccessful,
rather than as an either/or in a success/failure
division
If you propose a solution that reduces crime by only five
percent, your solution is a good one, even though it didn't
work in the other ninety-five percent of cases. In many
cases, an incomplete remedy is better than none at all.