EVIDENCE, CRITIC, & ALTERNATIVES
TO PSYCHOANALYSIS
RESEARCH EVIDENCE
Why is psychoanalytic theory so difficult to test?
Examples of empirical studies
MAIN LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
BEYOND FREUD
Neoanalytic approach: Jung, Adler, Horney
Humanistic approach: Rogers, Maslow
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RESEARCH EVIDENCE
Why are psychodynamic concepts so difficult to test?
• complexity (psychoanalysis = ‘grand theory’ of human nature)
• vagueness
• circularity
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RESEARCH EVIDENCE
Examples of well-known empirical studies:
• Rosenzweig (1943): study of Zeigarnick effect vs. repression
• Silverman (1976): studies of subliminal psychodynamic activation
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MAIN LIMITATIONS OF PSYCHOANALYSIS
• Overemphasis on the past
• Overemphasis on internal factors (wishes, conflicts, etc.)
• Pessimistic view of human nature
• Gender bias (review male and female Oedipus complex + see
Horney)
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BEYOND FREUD
Neo-analytic approach: Jung, Adler, Horney
• Focus shifts from the Id to the Ego
• View of personality development as more continuous,
life-long process
• Recognition of the role of society and culture in
shaping personality
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CARL JUNG (1875-1961)
• Principle of Opposites
• Collective Unconscious: contains ARCHETYPES
• Archetypes
EXAMPLES OF ‘MANDALA’ : archetypal image representing the Self.
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ALFRED ADLER (1870-1937)
Innate ‘Inferiority Complex’
‘Drive for Perfection’
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KAREN HORNEY (1885-1952)
• Innate ‘need for love’
‘basic anxiety’ (innate fear
of being isolated and helpless in a hostile world)
• Neurotic patterns of interpersonal behavior:
1. Moving towards people
(neurotic need for affection, approval)
2. Moving against people
(neurotic need for power, dominance, exploitation)
3. Moving away from others
(neurotic need for independence, self-sufficient, solitude)
• Feminist critic of psychoanalysis:
‘it’s culture, not anatomy!’ (women envy having status, not a penis)
‘men have womb envy’
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BEYOND FREUD
Humanistic/Phenomenological approach: Rogers, Maslow
MAIN EMPHASES:
1. Study of subjective experience: emphasis on the meaning one
gives to events, individual's frame of reference
2. Individual potential and self-determination: People are
intrinsically good, have great potential for growth and the power of
becoming what their best selves (self-actualization).
3. Self-concept/Identity: Who am I?
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CARL ROGERS (1902-1987)
“… people seem to be constantly struggling to be their ‘real’ self” (a more positive,
balanced, constructive identity)
SELF-ACTUALIZATION
Constant striving to identify and develop one's capacities and
talents (not in competition with others but to become "the best me I
can be”)
…. it develops from having
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
Being valued and accepted by others for whom one is (opposite:
conditions of worth)
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ABRAHAM MASLOW (1908-1970)
HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
PREPOTENCY OF NEEDS
PEAK EXPERIENCE
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PEACK EXPERIENCE:
doing/seeing something that feels
beautiful, the right thing to do,
empowering, meaningful
SELF-ACTUALIZING
NEEDS
PREPOTENCY OF NEEDS
PSYCHOLOGICAL
NEEDS
FUNDAMENTAL
NEEDS
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Characteristics of Self-Actualizing Persons
1. Realistically Oriented.
2. Accept Self and Others for What They Are.
3. Spontaneity.
4. Problem-Centered vs. Self Centered.
5. Somewhat Detached -- Need Privacy.
6. Autonomous / Independent.
7. Appreciate People and Things.
8. History of Profound / Mystical Experiences.
9. Identify with Humanity.
10. Intimate Relationships Profound and Emotional
11. Democratic Values.
12. Does not Confuse Means with Ends.
13. Philosophical Sense of Humor.
14. Creative.
15. Non-conforming.
16. Transcend Environment -- Do not Just Cope.
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