Getting Started with Academic
Writing
Writing Critically With Confidence
Getting Critical
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Get familiar with your area
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READ
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Get general overview first
Make notes
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Identify key concepts, Understand approaches, Summarise understanding
Process
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Reflect on what you have read
Identify ideas, agreements, contradictions, gaps
Getting Critical
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Formulate your opinions and questions
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Do you agree or disagree?
Are you aligning with one grouping or another in the research
area?
What are the most common research approaches?
Do you think there are other ways tackling things?
Why? (to all the above)
Talk to peers and lecturers
Find your questions
Write
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Cohesive, coherent narrative – talking to the reader
Write with flow – can your reader follow your thinking from
start to finish and see where your ideas are coming from ?
Critical Thinking
Use critical thinking to develop arguments, draw conclusions, make inferences and
identify implications for your research question and ideas
Transfer the understanding you have gained from your critical evaluation
and use in response to your research question and ideas
Assess the worth of an idea in terms of its relevance to your
needs, the evidence on which it is based and how it relates to Evaluate
other pertinent ideas
Bring together different sources of information to
serve an argument or idea you are constructing.
Make logical connections between the different Synthesise
sources that help you shape and support your
ideas.
Apply
Justify
Support
your
approach
and
conclusions
Build into your approach
Comment critically on evidence to
support your question or ideas
Bring together all previous steps into coherent,
cohesive picture of your context
Explore the similarities and differences between
the ideas you are reading
Examine how these key components fit together and relate to
Identifying agreements,
Analyse
contradictions and gaps
each other
Describing Comprehend the key points, assumptions, arguments and evidence
Terms,
Understand
presented
definitions, etc
Starting here to create your questions and
evidence
Process
Compare
Take in the information
Source Open University (2008), Critical Thinking,
http://www.open.ac.uk/skillsforstudy/criticalthinking.php, [Date Accessed: 21st October 2011]
Writing
Describing
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First step – you always
have to do this
Expected to move quickly
beyond this
Describe with perspective
Move quickly to analysis
Analysing
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Crucial to all postgraduate
work
Pick out key themes, ideas,
points
Show relationships
Comparing (and
contrasting)
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Need to do both
Similarities and differences
Writing
Synthesising
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Bringing it together
Cohesion and Coherence
Linking description,
analysis, comparison etc
Drafting and editing
Evaluating
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Considering merits of
analysis, comparison,
synthesise
Value of evidence
Justify
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Develop ideas
Comment
Defend
Show evidence
Being Critical in Writing
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Selecting sources is a demonstration of critical thinking
Making connections between sources is a demonstration
of critical analysis
Formulating an opinion or idea from sources is a
demonstration of critical analysis
Constructing and presenting a comment on sources is a
demonstration of critical writing
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.
Being Critical in Writing – Things you
can do
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Compare and contrast theories, concepts, terms from
literature and include a statement on the position most
valid for your work
Selecting references to support your arguments
Bringing together ideas/arguments from more than one
source to create a new perspective or extend an existing
view
Agree with, confirm or defend a view through analysis of
its strengths and weaknesses
Conceding a view has strengths but with qualification
Rejecting a view giving reasons for the rejection
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications
Ltd.
Being Critical in Writing
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When you reference a source
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You need to include an adequate summary or paraphrase
It should be clear why this source is included
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To be critical you do not need to completely dismiss the ideas/opinions in a
source
When you need to show a gap or disagreement between sources you will
need to include negative criticism
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Key researcher, well cited etc (no need to state this)
E.g.
Highlighting work not done
Identifying flaws/weaknesses
Showing alternate approaches
Applying approach in different context
Be respectful, know you may also be challenged
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Choose your language carefully
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications Ltd.
Writers Voice
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Leading reader through the content
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Cohesion, coherence
Writing with flow
Make your own position clear
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Be explicit about how you use aspects of work in the source in
your own work
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Evaluation, Justification
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications
Ltd.
How to do it
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Connect to the citation
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To other work
Or your own
However, Similarly ….
Summarise and evaluate source
Present an overall conclusion at the end of a section
Verbs used
Source Ridley (2008), The Literature Review: A Step by Step Guide, Chapter 8, Sage Publications
Ltd.
Constructing Arguments – Starting
Point
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An argument is a particular stand on an issue or question.
Usually a paper has one main idea – called ‘claim’ or
‘thesis statement’
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A statement of position or opinion about a certain subject
usually an answer to a direct research question
What you are setting out to discuss or establish
Made up of a series of other claims or ‘premises’
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Other claims that lead to or contribute to the thesis
statement.
Part of the discussion prior to the establishing the conclusion
claim.
Claims
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Should not be
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Stated as a question
A list
Vague, aggressively argumentative or confrontational
Should be
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Definitive and arguable
As clear and specific as possible
Constructing an argument – Need to
demonstrate
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Understanding of related material
Discussion of related material
Application of understanding to form own opinions
Constructing an Argument – Support
Required
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Research Approach
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Counterarguments
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Theories
Methodologies
Results
Relationship between above
Have you thought about your argument?
Can you refute counterarguments?
Discussion
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Have you discussed all the above?
Constructing an Argument – Support
Required
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Evidence
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Facts
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Statistics
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Support from known ‘experts’ in your area
Personal Experience
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Comparison of amounts or numbers in context, from a reliable
source and are an accurate representation of reality
Expert Authority
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Agreed upon, accepted, cannot be disputed
Must be relevant, must be credible, be related to the claim
Research Approach
Discussion
Strong Argument
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Convinces the reader that the conclusion is correct.
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gaps or bad connections in premises, undermine the linked conclusion
Evidence is convincing and objective, and it supports the
claims
Argument considers all the different perspectives, and
comes to a reasonable conclusion based on those
perspectives
Argument is clearly and consistently reasoned.
Constructing an argument
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Consider your audience
Consider the review process
Consider the area
How do these influence ?
Testing your argument
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Read your work critically
Use the techniques covered in critical reading
How well does your work stack up?
Arguing and discussing
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You need to identify
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your claim - your point of view, what you believe;
your reason(s) - why you believe what you do;
your evidence - the facts, data and examples that support your point of view; and
your argument - how the evidence you have provided leads to the claim your are
making.
Example
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claim – causes of failure in software development projects is largely due to
communication
reasons – identify the main causes showing communication as one of them and
show its influence on others
evidence – show number of examples that support the view – agile in particular
argument – draw conclusion from discussion numerous causes but show that
communication is central
Arguing and discussing
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The balanced view
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Present both sides of an argument then conclude
The persuasive view
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Start by presenting your view and construct argument to
convince
Evaluating other points of view
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Present the viewpoint
 Paraphrase, summarise
 Comment negatively or positively
E.g.
 Agile methodologies are widely criticised as being chaotic in nature,
focusing all control in the hands of software developers (….) .
 This stems largely from the fact that agile methodologies advocate
reducing bureaucratic elements which do not contribute directly to the
creation of software (…)
 However, the majority of agile methodologies have a disciplined
approach at their core.
 For example, XP…, SCRUM…. (detail of discipline)
 Therefore it is evident that rather than chaos, agile methodologies
advocate discipline where needed and lightweight where not.
Critical Analysis Frameworks
SWOT
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Strengths
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats
PEST(LE)
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Political
Economic
Social
Technical
Legal
Environmental
See also SLEPT
Critical Analysis Frameworks
6 Thinking Hats
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Information: (White)
Emotions (Red)
Bad points judgment (Black)
Good points judgment
(Yellow)
Creativity (Green)
Thinking (Blue)
COR T techniques
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Plus Minus Interesting
Consider All Factors
First Important Principles
Alternate, Possibilities, &
Choices
Consequences & Sequels
Aims, Goals, Objectives
Getting Started
Aims, Goals & Objectives AGO
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To introduce and emphasise the idea of purpose
Focus directly and deliberately on the intention behind
actions.
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Aim is the general direction
Goal is an ultimate destination
Objective is a recognisable point of achievement along the way
Applying
Six-Hats Technique
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Blue
White
Yellow P
Black M
Green
I
Red
Blue
Expressing your argument - Structure
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Introduction
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Introduce reader to the issue
Outline the background
Outline motivation for argument
Map out how you will address the argument in particular structure of the
rest of the paper
Main Body
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Each section deals with establishing a premise
Each section will have an introduction and conclusion
Include evidence
Include discussion and analysis
Deal with alternatives
Sequence is significant
Expressing your argument - Structure
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Conclusion
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Restate the points made
Restate your claim
Restate how you have achieved your claim
Link to evidence
Paragraph
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A collection of related sentences dealing with a single
topic.
Use to decompose your narrative
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Each paragraph
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Break it into chunks
Present ideas coherently
Should have a clear central point
Focus on one topic
Contain only relevant information
If you feel your paragraph addresses more than one topic
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Introduce another paragraph
Paragraph
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Opening Sentence – Topic Sentence
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Body
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Explanation and clarification
Discussion of the main point
Evidence
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Short, to the point
Introduce the main point
Provide supporting evidence for your main point and
discussion
Concluding Sentence
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Comment on evidence, draw conclusions from discussion,
signpost to next paragraph
Paragraph
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Unity
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Coherence
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Paragraph should make sense
Sentences should flow
A Topic Sentence
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Focus on one idea
Try not to wander off onto others
Indicates generally what the paragraph will be about
Adequate Development
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Discuss your topic adequately
Use examples, cite, compare and contrast, analyse, describe etc
Writing with flow
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Write Coherent Paragraphs
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You have to connect your sentences in a paragraph
Provide Flow
Sentence Connectors
 used to link ideas from one sentence to the next
and to give paragraphs coherence.
 placed at the beginning of a sentence.
 used to introduce, order, contrast, sequence ideas,
theory, data etc.
Sentence Connectors
Category
Sample words
addition
again, also, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first
place, moreover, second
Sequence
first, second, lastly, earlier, later, in parallel, in addition, further, furthermore, also
comparison
also, likewise, similarly
contrast
although, yet, despite, however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless,
notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless,
compared to
concession
granted, naturally, of course
emphasis/import
ance
certainly, indeed, in fact, of course, significantly, most significantly, primarily, above all
example
after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in
fact, in other words, in short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to
illustrate, thus, truly
summary
as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short,
in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to summarize
conclusion
as a result, as a consequence, therefore, thus, consequently, hence, in conclusion
Links between paragraphs
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Pick up key points and words from previous
paragraphs
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Use linking words (see sentence connectors) as transition
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/574/1/
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Topic Sentence
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The topic
The main point about the topic
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<topic><main point>
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<main point><topic>
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The waterfall model of software development is a useful tool in
introducing the phases of software development to novice developers.
A useful tool in introducing the phases of software development is the
waterfall model of software development.
Signals the content of the paragraph.
Concluding sentences
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Put key points at the end of sentences
Put key findings at the end of paragraphs
Writing Paragraphs
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Create a topic sentence
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Introduce the main idea
Explain or define any terms needed to clarify the topic
sentence
Show evidence to support the main idea/argument
Comment on the evidence and mention other evidence
Conclude
WEED for paragraph construction
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What
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Evidence
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Have I provided evidence for what I am saying
Example
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Is it clear what point I am making
Do I need to give an example to illustrate what I am saying
Do
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So what? What do I do with what I have presented?
Using the Diamond
Paper is a diamond
Start
Middle
End
Each section is a diamond
Each paragraph is a
diamond
Using the Diamond
Section with one or more paragraphs
Links to the next section
etc
Main body is a series of
diamonds linked
Each section is a series of
diamonds linked