Typical Battle Questions
1999 Higher Level
(ii)
Give an account of the main units in Alexander’s army (infantry and cavalry), and
the uses to which Alexander put them in his campaigns.
(50)
2009 Higher Level
(i)
At the Granicus River Alexander won his first victory over a Persian army.
(a) Give a brief account of the battle.
(30)
(b) What do we learn about Alexander’s qualities of leadership from this battle? (20)
2002 Higher Level
(ii)
(a) How did it happen that Issus became the site of the battle between
Alexander and Darius?
(b) Explain why Darius lined up his forces as he did.
(c) Briefly outline the course of the Battle.
(15)
(15)
(20)
2005 Higher Level
(iii)
At the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 B.C., Alexander’s forces defeated the Persians
under Darius.
(a) Describe the preparations of both sides for the battle.
(b) Give an account of the battle.
(c) Comment on the tactics employed by Darius and Alexander.
(10)
(25)
(15)
2011 Higher Level
(iv)
(a) Describe how Alexander succeeded in crossing the Hydaspes Rover unopposed.
(20)
(b) Analyse the reasons for Alexander’s victory over Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes. (30)
2005 Ordinary Level
(i)
Alexander won his first victory in Asia at the Battle of Granicus.
(a) Describe the place where the battle was fought.
(b) Give an account of the battle.
(c) How did Alexander honour the Macedonian dead?
(15)
(25)
(10)
2000 Ordinary Level
(iv)
(a) Why did the site of the Battle of Issus suit Alexander’s army more than the
The army of the Persians?
(15)
(b) Briefly describe the course of the battle.
(35)
2010 Ordinary Level
(iii)
In 331BC Alexander defeated Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela.
(a) Why did Alexander refuse to fight on the night before the battle actually took place? (10)
(b) Give a brief account of the battle.
(30)
(c) Mention one important result of the battle.
(10)
2002 Ordinary Level
(iv)
(a) Despite the presence of Porus, the Indian king, on the opposite bank, how did
Alexander succeed in crossing the river Hydaspes?
(30)
(b) Describe the course of the battle which followed.
(20)
2006: Higher Level, Topic 2
(i)
(a) Describe the main components of Alexander’s army.
(b) In the battle of Issus what use did Alexander make of his cavalry and infantry?
(25)
(25)
The Macedonian Army
 Professional army
 Alexander murdered Cleitus for reminding him that he simply inherited the army
that Philip built and Alexander himself reminded his mutinous army of the same fact
at Opis.
 In his speech before Issus he pointed out that the Macedonians were not
conscripted slaves and they were different again to paid mercenaries like Memnon’s
forces at Granicus and Miletus or Taxilles mercenaries in India because they fought
for love of their king and for a wage as we learn when Alexander dismisses the Greek
allies after Gaugamela but invites them to re-enlist as freemen.
 They were drilled constantly and their discipline was such that they often
intimidated the enemy into flight like the Siege of Pelium in Illyria or surrender such
as the taking of Rock of Aornos.
We find out about Alexander’s army in JR Hamilton’s introduction to Aubrey de Salincourt’s Penguin
translation (your book, pp.34-40) of Arrian’s Anabasis Alexandri
 Right and Left Wings
Taking the Battle of Issus as an example we may imagine taking a bird’s eye view of the
Macedonian army and instantly note that it is split in two. The right wing is the proactive
side which attacks and is under the general command of Alexander whilst the left wing
under Parmenion’s command during the Persian Campaign generally operates as a defensive
holding mechanism to check the attack of the enemy and guard against an outflanking
manoeuvre.
 A variety of specialised troops
Granicus had been a lesson for Darius. By Issus his army attempted to mimic Alexander’s
which was composed of an assortment of strategically placed troops each with particular
skills, strengths and weaknesses and varying speeds. Moving from Parmenion’s left wing to
Alexander’s right we find the Allied Greek light cavalries guarding the beach and in from
them the heavier Thessalian cavalry supported by Amyntas’ light infantry before coming to
the heavy infantry phalanxes of Ptolemy and Meleager. All the infantry on the left wing was
under the command of Craterus, who later succeeded Parmenio as the left wing general.
Stationed in the van of the left wing infantry we find the Thracian Peltasts and Cretan
archers. Owing to what Arrian terms as “the strange geography of the place” Alexander was
forced to split his right wing into two units. On the extreme right facing the hills at an angle
he stationed his Agrianian light infantry along with some light cavalry and archers to check
the Persians posted to the high ground almost to the Macedonian rear. In the main section
facing across the river Pinarus we find the light cavalries: Alexander’s scouts and the
Paeonians, supporting Alexander’s heavy Companion cavalry. Connecting the cavalry to the
centre are Nicanor’s light infantry guards and then Coenus and Perdiccas’ phalanxes
complete the picture.
 Heavy Infantry
The Pezhetairoi (foot companions) as they were nicknamed by Alexander possibly to
encourage more men to enlist were the heavy infantry battalions that made up the centre of
Alexander’s army. They marched in battalions called phalanxes. Each individual phalangite
wore a bronze helmet, a thick cuirass and bronze grieves. They carried a medium circular
shield strapped to one arm which freed both arms to carry the phalangite’s main weapon: a
14ft long pike called a sarissa the shaft of which we learn at Granicus was made of hard
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cornel wood. Marching in formation the first five lines of the phalanx held their sarissas
down so that before one even reached the first line of shields one had to pass a veritable
hedgehog of sarissa points. On account of their heavy armour the phalanxes marched slowly
but steadily and were all but unstoppable. They were however vulnerable from behind and
to the flanks and thus required protection.
Light infantries
The Hypaspists (shield-bearers or guards later known as silver shields) were different to the
main phalanxes. Since they were more dynamic than the heavy infantry we must suppose
that a hypaspist was similar to a Greek hoplite with his distinctive large circular aspis shield,
which would explain the Greek term hypo-aspoi (under aspises). Parmenion’s son Nicanor
commanded the three battalions of hypaspists until his death shortly after Gaugamela. On
the left wing mirroring the position of the hypaspists Amyntas led a similar battalion of light
infantry. Their role was to protect the vulnerable flanks of the phalanxes and to close the
gap between the centre and the right and left wing cavalries.
Heavy Cavalries
The primary assault and defensive force in Alexander’s army were the heavy cavalries. They
should be thought of as ancient tanks. On the right wing the cavalry known as the Hetairoi
(Companions) led the charges on the enemy in all the major battles. Normally made up of
Macedonian nobles who could afford horses there were 8 squadrons or ilai all under the
command of Parmenio’s son Philotas until his execution for treason after Gaugamela,
whereupon the command was split between Alexander’s bodyguard Hephaestion and
Cleitus who formerly led Alexander’s agema (royal squadron). The heavy cavalry charged
against the enemy lines often in wedge formation. Its role was to burst through the enemy
lines causing a breach and thus a rout. The primary weapon apart from the horse was a
shorter sarissa, although horsemen frequently resorted to their secondary weapon which
was a kind of slashing sword. The Hetairoi were mirrored on the left wing by the Thessalian
cavalry until their discharge after Gaugamela and afterwards by the Bactrian cavalry in
India. On the left wing, the heavy cavalry had to hold the attacking right wing of the enemy,
which Parmenion succeeded in doing at Granicus and Issus but failed to do at Gaugamela.
Light cavalries
In addition to the heavy cavalries there were also lighter cavalries. The horsemen wore less
armour and generally carried an assortment of lighter arms such as spears and javelins and
later the Bactrians carried bows which they could shoot backwards at full gallop. Like the
light infantry their roles were to guard the heavy cavalry and to close the gaps in the lines
during a charge. Alexander generally kept his prodromoi (advance scouts) and the Paeonian
cavalry on his right wing and sent the Peloponnesian and other allied Greek cavalries over to
Parmenion on the Left.
Skirmishers
Alexander also employed an assortment of specialised troops whose primary role was to
harass the enemy lines before the main units came to close quarters with them. Such
skirmishers were the Thracian peltasts (javelin men known for their distinctive wicker shield
called a pelte) or the Agrianians. Then there were others like the Cretan archers and the
slingers whose primary role was to provide a screen of covering fire to protect the cavalry
and infantry advance. On account of their wearing little or no armour and carrying such light
weapons these troops were extremely adaptable, quick and stealthy but they were also very
vulnerable for the same reasons and so they could do nothing more than provide support to
the main army. Consequently they were often stationed on the extreme wings or in the van
like at Issus.
(b) We might sum up Alexander’s main strategy at Issus by the analogy of a blacksmith’s
hammer and anvil ...
A typical battle question follows a 3 part format for the Persian Campaign
(a) Produce facts about the build-up or terrain of the battle
(b) Outline/Give an account of the battle
(c) Comment briefly on a particular aspect or mention the outcomes
(a)
Granicus
 Council of Zeleia
 The river and Parmenio’s advice
 Persian cavalry lined the banks but Memnon’s mercenaries behind the ridge/hill
Issus
 Darius rejects Amyntas’ advice
 2 ways into Assyria: Assyrian Gates (Alexander) or Amaniac Gates (Darius) thus two armies
pass each other by. Issus = massacre of Alexander’s wounded. Darius stops at river Pinarus.
 Arrian, “the strange Geography of the place” meant that part of Darius’ left wing was almost
in Alexander’s rear; an advantage that Darius failed to exploit.
Gaugamela
 Darius ceded Mesopotamia to Alexander so as to lie in wait for him on the plain of
Gaugamela, which he had levelled several weeks in advance of Alexander’s arrival.
 Alexander heeded Parmenio’s advice to halt the army and reconnoitre the site with his scouts
 Alexander rejected Parmenio’s advice for a night attack saying, “I will not steal a victory” (a
lofty reply probably for the benefit of others in the tent) meaning he did not want to give
Darius any excuse beyond being the weaker general and because if the battle went against
them they would be surrounded by enemies in unknown country. Speaking as a general
himself Arrian also notes that night fighting is unpredictable and only a last desperate resort.
(b) Outlines should be concise. You’re being asked to describe the key phases of the battle not to
actually fight in the battle. Your reader shouldn’t be bleeding after your account. Only mention those
key figures that are actually important in the battle and otherwise keep things general. A good trick
is to include battle formations as you go and to keep the list brief. For example, apart from the
Cardaccians (who are the elite heavy infantry) it’s not necessary to list off the various ethnicities of
the Persian units if they’re all infantries. The Persian light infantry will do. Also remember that when
Alexander breaks through the Persian left wing the Persian right is generally engaged with
Parmenio’s left so don’t forget to account for what is happening over there and include interesting
information especially in Higher Level (Arrian v Plutarch’s accounts).
There is a sample outline of Gaugamela on the next page. Notice that it is short and concise but
leaves nothing out.
The Battle of Gaugamela began when Alexander moved his right
wing on a feint to the right. As Alexander’s heavy Hetarioi
(companion) cavalry supported by his lighter Paeonians and
prodromoi (scouts) moved to the right Darius ordered Bessus to
shadow the move with his Bactrian cavalry and eventually fearing
that Alexander would reach the unlevelled ground where his scythe
chariots would be useless ordered Bessus to cut him off by
enveloping him and put his war chariots into play. Bessus’ sudden
move however opened a gap in the Persian lines, which Alexander
instantly moved to exploit by turning round and charging in
wedge formation. At the same time his infantry easily adjusted
their positions allowing the chariots to pass harmlessly by
whereupon the drivers were shot and the chariots neutralised. The
Persian left wing was at this stage beginning to break however
Alexander’s rapid move to exploit the gap had caused a similar gap
in his own lines between the left wing and the centre, which Darius’
right wing commander Mazaeus exploited. The Persian heavy
cavalry had by now broken through the Macedonian lines cutting
off Simmias’ phalanx of light infantry from joining the main
phalanxes with Alexander and had all but enveloped Parmenio’s
heavy Thessalian and lighter allied Greek cavalries on the left
wing. Meanwhile Alexander had broken through the Persian lines
and was within sight of Darius himself when the Great King lost
his nerve and fled, which caused a general rout of the Persians.
Alexander pursued but at this stage received a message from
Parmenio calling for aid as the Persian cavalry had broken
through to the Macedonian camp and the left wing was in danger
of breaking. Not wanting to lose his left wing Alexander
reluctantly broke off his pursuit of Darius to rescue Parmenio but
by the time he arrived the Thessalian cavalry had sewn things up
on the extreme left and his camp was safe thanks to the double
valour of the Thracian auxiliaries left to defend it and the fact that
his reserve phalanxes had wheeled about as they had been ordered to
do in case they were outflanked. Thus Alexander won the battle.
Battle of Issus: how the two armies managed to pass each other
Battle Formations