Argument
Workshop
What is an Argument?
• Arguments are more common than you think. Have you
ever looked at a piece of art or watched people protest a
decision made by the President? Then you’ve witnessed
an argument.
• In college and graduate school, students are required to
build different kinds of arguments through essays:
– personal essays that argue the significance of an experience
– persuasive essays that argue for a change in a community or
that try to convince others to read a book or believe as the
author does
– research essays make wide and varied arguments
• No matter what kind of essay you’re writing, you’ll need
to organize it around an argument.
Preparing for an Argument
• As you begin to think about your argument, you’ll need to
consider how to prepare.
• Whenever we write, we have a purpose, a certain
audience, and a particular stance—this stance is how
you, the writer, already feel about the topic before you
even begin writing.
• Purpose, audience, and writer combine to create what
scholars call a rhetorical situation. Each essay has its
own specific rhetorical situation. And every college-level
writer needs to consider each element at the beginning
of his/her writing process.
• Think of this image when considering your rhetorical
situation:
Preparing for an Argument
PURPOSE
AUDIENCE
WRITER
Preparing for an Argument
• The rhetorical triangle represents the steps
writers take when preparing an argument.
• Identify your purpose.
– Is your primary purpose to entertain? to inform? to
persuade?
– What are your goals?
– Is your purpose affected by your audience’s
expectations? What do you want your audience to
think? feel?
Preparing for an Argument
• The rhetorical triangle represents the
steps writers take when preparing an
argument.
• Identify your audience.
Preparing for an Argument
Known Audiences
Beginning writers usually write for themselves; they picture the audience as a
group of people just like them. An audience might include friends, relatives,
teachers, classmates, and other known and familiar audiences. You know
what these audiences expect and their level of information on your topic.
Unknown Audiences
Sometimes, though, you might be writing for multiple audiences, including
audiences you don’t know. They might expect you to write in ways that are
familiar to them but new to you.
Ask Yourself
• Whom do you want to reach?
• What is your audience’s background? What political or demographical
circumstances may affect their reading? What does your audience already
know and think about your topic?
• What tone and language would be most appropriate? How can you appeal
to your audience?
Preparing for an Argument
The rhetorical triangle represents the steps writers take when preparing
an argument.
Identify your stance as a writer.
• What is your attitude about your topic? Critical? Opinionated?
Objective? Passionate? Indifferent?
• What is your background with the topic? Are you biased by what you
already know about the topic?
• What experience do you have with the topic that any general
audience would not necessarily have?
• How do you want your audience to see you? As a passionate
advocate? An objective observer?
• Should you openly reveal your stance?
• What tone will best convey your stance?
What is an Argument?
All good arguments have some things in
common:
They have an arguable claim or thesis
• They present reasons and evidence to
support their position
• They appeal to an audience and make a
case for themselves by finding ways of
getting an audience to agree with them
Choosing a Topic
At the heart of all good arguments lies a claim with which
people may reasonably disagree.
Sometimes college-level writers use the term argument,
itself, to refer to this claim. Other terms include position
and thesis statement.
You may have heard the term argument used in the phrase
“Your thesis doesn’t have an argument” or “Your claim
isn’t arguable.” All thesis statements, whether for
argument essays or otherwise, should be arguable.
What makes a claim arguable?
Choosing a Topic
Certain claims are not arguable, such
as statements of opinion,
statements of fact, and statements
of faith or morality. For example:
Opinion
“I hate chocolate”
or “Fencing is a
stupid sport”
These claims cannot be reasonably
disputed and usually turn into
disputes of right vs. wrong or
correct vs. incorrect. These kinds
of disputes are not examples of
academic argument.
Fact
“The first Star
Wars movie was
released in 1977”
Faith/Morality
“There is life after
death” or “Capital
punishment is
wrong”
Instead academic argument focuses
on developing a claim that is
reasonable, can be supported,
and is worthy of being taken
seriously.
Arguable Claims
An arguable claim reflects one of at least two points of view. For example:
Downloading music should (or should not) be considered fair use.
Airport security must target certain groups (or must treat everyone the same).
Write an alternative point of view for each of these arguments. What claims
might someone make if she disagrees with these arguments?
Recycling is not cost-effective.
English should be the only language of instruction in elementary schools.
Because an argument is, by definition, only one side of an issue or larger
debate, no argument is complete without some mention or discussion of
alternative points of view, called counterarguments. We will learn more
about counterarguments later.
Arguable Claims
An arguable claim reflects one of at least two points of view. For example:
Downloading music should (or should not) be considered fair use.
Airport security must target certain groups (or must treat everyone the same).
Write an alternative point of view for each of these arguments. What claims might someone make if
she disagrees with these arguments?
Recycling is not cost-effective.
Recycling is cost-effective.
But what if recycling really isn’t cost-effective?
While recycling is currently less cost-effective than traditional disposal methods, in the future the
costs to our environment as well as the shrinking supply of landfill space will far outweigh the
costs of a basic recycling program.
English should be the only language of instruction in elementary schools.
Because an argument is, by definition, only one side of an issue or larger debate, no argument is
complete without some mention or discussion of alternative points of view, called
counterarguments. We will learn more about counterarguments later.
Arguable Claims
An arguable claim reflects one of at least two points of view. For example:
Downloading music should (or should not) be considered fair use.
Airport security must target certain groups (or must treat everyone the same).
Write an alternative point of view for each of these arguments. What claims might someone make if
she disagrees with these arguments?
Recycling is not cost-effective.
English should be the only language of instruction in elementary schools.
English should not be the only language of instruction in elementary schools.
This claim seems the most obvious alternative, but this alternative is incredibly broad and argues
nothing specific.
Bilingual instruction should be offered as an option in elementary schools located in areas where
English is not the predominant first language.
Because an argument is, by definition, only one side of an issue or larger debate, no argument is
complete without some mention or discussion of alternative points of view, called
counterarguments. We will learn more about counterarguments later.
Research Questions
If you are developing your argument or thesis statement
from a research question, choose questions that are
narrow, challenging, and grounded.
Research Questions
Too Broad
Narrow
What are the hazards of fad diets?
What are the hazards of liquid diets?
What causes homelessness?
How has the deinstitutionalization of the mentally ill
contributed to homelessness?
Too Easy
Challenging
What is obsessive-compulsive disorder?
What treatments for obsessive-compulsive disorder
show the most promise?
Where is wind energy being used?
Does investing in wind energy make economic
sense?
Too Speculative
Grounded
Is capital punishment moral?
Does capital punishment deter crime?
What is the difference between a just and an unjust
law?
Should federal laws penalize equally for
possession of powdered cocaine and crack
cocaine?
Background Information and
Context
Once you have a claim that is arguable—and once you can state that claim
in a way that is narrow, challenging, and grounded—consider that
rhetorical triangle again. Your topic may not fit itself easily into a writing
purpose. It may not be familiar to all audiences. And you may have an
extensive experience with the topic that most audiences won’t have.
Consider what background information or context you might need to
provide in order to begin your argument without leaving your audience
in the dust scratching their heads or having to interrupt your argument
to go back an explain a concept or provide a definition.
Think of this image; before you can even
approach your purpose or persuade
your reader, you need to provide context.
Background Information and
Context
CONTEXT
PURPOSE
AUDIENCE
WRITER
All Good Arguments Have Things in
Common
• They have an arguable claim or thesis
• They present reasons and evidence to
support their position
• They appeal to an audience and make a
case for themselves by finding ways of
getting an audience to agree with them
Reasons
By itself, a claim does not make an argument. The argument comes when a
writer offers reasons that support the claim.
Once you have a claim, thesis, or position, you need to come up with good
reasons to convince your readers that it’s plausible. Start by stating your
position and then answering the question “Why?” For example:
Claim Bilingual education should be offered as an option for elementary schools in
areas where English is not the predominant first language. Why?
Because Learning difficult subject matter in a second language can drastically
affect a student’s confidence and therefore his/her learning ability. Why?
Because Students who struggle with a second language often do not participate in
classroom learning activities, including reading aloud or working with classmates,
due to embarrassment.
Other terms used by college-level writers in place of the term reason include
sub-claim, thesis point, supporting point, and line of argument. All of these
terms indicate the more focused points that build an essay’s body
paragraphs. They are answers to that question Why?
Evidence
Next, you have to develop support for your reasons. For
example, you may:
– use facts or statistics,
– offer anecdotes, scenarios, or illustrations, OR
– cite an expert or authority opinion or textual evidence.
Some kinds of evidence are not acceptable to certain
audiences. For example, a case study would be readily
accepted by an audience in the social sciences but not
by an audience in the humanities. And anecdotes might
have more of a place in the humanities but not in the
physical sciences.
Before you can select appropriate evidence, you must
know who your audience is and what appeals to them.
All Good Arguments Have Things in
Common
• They have an arguable claim or thesis
• They present reasons and evidence to
support their position
• They appeal to an audience and make a
case for themselves by finding ways of
getting an audience to agree with them
Appeals to the Reader
At some point, you may have written an essay that really
drew readers into your thinking process, your ideas, or
the progression of your essay. How did you do that?
Scholars have formulated three different kinds of appeals
to an audience:
– Logos is an appeal to reason,
– Pathos is an appeal to the reader’s values or emotion, and
– Ethos is the appeal of being trustworthy.
Of the kinds of evidence listed on the previous slide:
– facts or statistics are examples of logos,
– anecdotes, scenarios, or illustrations are examples of pathos,
– and expert or authority opinions or textual evidence are
examples of ethos.
Appeals to the Reader
Just as different kinds of evidence are not
accepted by certain audiences, so different
appeals are more appropriate for some
audiences. For example, an audience for an
argument opposing the death penalty would
likely be persuaded by emotional appeals while
an audience for an argument in favor of a new
recycling program might be more persuaded by
appeals to their logic or sense of reason.
Counterarguments
Whatever your claim, your argument is only strengthened by demonstrating a
clear understanding of all points of view on your topic.
The mark of a skilled writer lies in how he/she tackles the counterargument.
To refute other positions, a college-level writer:
• states an alternative position as clearly and fairly as possible and then
• shows why it is flawed (perhaps the supporting evidence is inadequate or
the reasoning is weak)
Remember, if an alternative position has some merit but fails on some points,
acknowledge its strengths but emphasize its shortcomings.
You do not weaken your argument by acknowledging other positions. Instead,
you have an opportunity to strengthen your own position.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Integrating Counterarguments
In the following paragraph, identify:
• the student’s claim
• alternative claims to the student’s claim
• how the student refutes opposing claims
• appeals to the reader
Though airlines and the U.S. government are taking many steps to ensure the
safety of passengers, there is still a risk. In light of recent hijackings by
militant Islamic Arabs, it would be very easy and economically sensible to
target Middle Easterners for security checks at airports and anywhere else
security could be an issue. This would allow everyone else who is
statistically less likely to be a terrorist to travel more freely without long
delays. However, as sensible and economical as this solution could be, it is
unethical. If the rights of one group of people are jeopardized, then the
rights of all Americans are jeopardized. Freedom must not be sacrificed for
security.
Constructing Reasonable
Arguments
Now it’s time to build your argument. Your task is to lead your readers from point to point
as you make your case from beginning to end.
Sometimes, you may want to present all of the reasons that support your claim first and
then discuss other position. For example,
Step 1:
Introduce the issue and provide any necessary background
information.
Step 2:
State your thesis.
Step 3:
Give the first reason with evidence.
Give the second reason with evidence.
Repeat Step 3 as needed.
Step 4:
Acknowledge and/or refute counterarguments.
Step 5:
End with a call to action, a restatement of your thesis, or a statement of
implications.
Please note that the above Steps do not represent paragraphs in an essay. For example,
Step 1 and Step 2 should probably both occur in your opening paragraph. And Step 3
may happen over as many paragraphs as you have reasons.
And while you may be accustomed to an essay with 5 paragraphs, an argument can be
constructed in any number of paragraphs.
Constructing Reasonable
Arguments
For other arguments, you might discuss each reason and its counterargument
together. For example:
Step 1: Introduce the issue and provide any necessary background
information.
Step 2: State your thesis.
Step 3: Give the first reason with evidence.
Step 4: Acknowledge and/or refute a counterargument.
Repeat Step 3 and Step 4 as needed.
Step 5: End with a call to action, a restatement of your thesis, or a statement
of implications.
Please note that the above Steps do not represent paragraphs in an essay. For
example, Step 1 and Step 2 should probably both occur in your opening
paragraph. And Step 3 and Step 4 may happen over as many paragraphs
as you have reasons and counterarguments.
And while you may be accustomed to an essay with 5 paragraphs, an
argument can be constructed in any number of paragraphs.