Introduction and Tissues
Human Anatomy
BIOL 1010
Liston Campus
What is Anatomy?
Anatomy (= morphology): study of body’s structure
Physiology: study of body’s function
Structure reflects Function!!!
Branches of Anatomy
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Gross: Large structures
Surface: Landmarks
Histology: Cells and Tissues
Developmental: Structures change through life
Embryology: Structures form and develop before birth
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Each of these build upon one another
to make up the next level:
Chemical level
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Chemical level
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Atoms combine to make molecules
4 macromolecules in the body
 Carbohydrates
 Lipids
 Proteins
 Nucleic acids
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Cellular

Made up of cells and cellular organelles
(molecules)
 Cells can be eukaryotic or prokaryotic
 Organelles are structures within cells that
perform dedicated functions (“small organs”
http://cmweb.pvschools.net/~bbecke/newell/Cells.html
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Tissue
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Collection of cells that work together to
perform a specialized function
4 basic types of tissue in the human body:
 Epithelium
 Connective tissue
 Muscle tissue
 Nervous tissue
www.emc.maricopa.edu
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organ

Made up of tissue
 Heart
 Brain
 Liver
 Pancreas, etc……
Pg 158
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organ system (11)
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Made up of a group of related organs that
work together
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Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
Lymphatic
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
Circulatory
Pg 314
Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Organism
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An individual human, animal, plant, etc……
Made up all of the organ systems
Work together to sustain life
Anatomical Directions
Anatomical position
Regions
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Axial vs. Appendicular
Anatomical Directions-It’s all Relative!
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Anterior (ventral) vs. Posterior (dorsal)
Medial vs. Lateral
Superior (cranial) vs. Inferior (caudal)
Superficial vs. Deep
Proximal vs. Distal
Anatomical Planes
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Frontal = Coronal
Transverse = Horizontal = Cross Section
Sagittal
Pg 3
Reference Point
Anterior – (ventral)
Closer to the front surface of
the body
Posterior – (dorsal)
Closer to the rear surface
of the body
Frontal Plane
Medial –
Lying closer to the midline
Lateral –
Lying further away from the
midline
Sagittal Plane
Superior – (cranial)
Closer to the head in relation to
the entire body
(More General)
Inferior – (caudal)
Away from the head or
towards the lower part of
the body
Horizontal Plane
Superficial –
Towards the surface
Deep –
Away from the surface
Surface of body or
organ
Proximal –
Closer to the origin of a body
part
(More Specific)
Distal –
Further away from the
origin of a body part
Origin of a structure
Embryology:
growth and development
of the body before birth
38 weeks from conception to birth
Prenatal period
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Embryonic: weeks 1-8
Fetal: weeks 9-38
Basic adult body plan shows by 2nd month
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Skin = epidermis, dermis
Outer body wall=muscle, vertebral column and spinal
cord
Body cavity and digestive tubes
Kidney and gonads
Limbs=skin, muscle, bone
Weeks 5-8 and Fetal Period
Second month, tadpole  person
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Tail disappears
Head enlarges
Extremities form (day 28, limb buds appear)
Eyes, nose, ears form
Organs in place
Fetal Period
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Rapid growth and maturation
Organs grow and increase in complexity &
competence
4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
Tissues:
groups of cells closely associated that
have a similar structure and perform a related function
Four types of tissue
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Epithelial = covering/lining
Connective = support
Muscle = movement
Nervous = control
Most organs contain all 4 types
Tissue has non-living extracellular
material between its cells
EPITHELIAL TISSUE:
sheets of
cells cover a surface or line a cavity
Functions
Protection
 Secretion
 Slippery Surface
 Absorption
 Ion Transport
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Characteristics of Epithelium
Cellularity

Composed of cells
Specialized Contacts
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Joined by cell junctions
Polarity

Apical vs. Basal surfaces differ
Supported by Connective Tissue
Avascular
Innervated
Regenerative
Classification of Epithelium-based
on number of layers and cell shape
Layers
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Simple
Stratified
Psuedostratified
Stratified layers characterized by shape of
apical layer
Shapes
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Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Transitional
Types of Epithelium
Simple squamous (1 layer)
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Lungs, blood vessels, ventral
body cavity
Simple cuboidal
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Kidney tubules, glands
Simple columnar
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Stomach, intestines
Pseudostratified columnar
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Respiratory passages (ciliated
version)
Stratified squamous (>1 layer)
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Epidermis, mouth, esophagus,
vagina
Named so according to apical
cell shape
Regenerate from below
Deep layers cuboidal and
columnar
Transitional (not shown)
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All histology pictures property of BIOL 1010 Lab
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Thins when stretches
Hollow urinary organs
Endothelium
Endothelium
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Simple squamous
epithelium that lines vessels
e.g. lymphatic & blood
vessel
Mesothelium
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Simple squamous
epithelium that forms the
lining of body cavities
e.g. pleura, pericardium,
peritoneum
Features of Apical Surface of
Epithelium
Microvilli: (ex) in small intestine
 Finger-like extensions of the plasma membrane
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of apical epithelial cell
Increase surface area for absorption
Cilia:
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(ex) respiratory tubes
Whip-like, motile extension of plasma membrane
Moves mucus, etc. over epithelial surface 1-way
Flagella:
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(ex) spermatoza
Extra long cilia
Moves cell
www.colorado.edu/.../020digestion.htm
Features of Lateral Surface of
Epithelium
Cells are connected to neighboring cells via:
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Proteins-link cells together, interdigitate
Contour of cells-wavy contour fits together
Cell Junctions (3 common)
 Desmosomes
 adhesive spots on lateral sides linked by proteins/filaments
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holds tissues together
 Tight Junctions
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at apical area
plasma membrane of adjacent cells fuse, nothing passes
 Gap junction
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spot-like junction occurring anywhere made of hollow cylinders of
protein
lets small molecules pass
Features of the Basal Surface
of Epithelium
Basement membrane
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Sheet between the epithelial and connective tissue
layers
Attaches epithelium to connective tissue below
Made up of:
 Basal lamina: thin, non-cellular, supportive sheet Made of
proteins
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Superficial layer
Acts as a selective filter
Assists epithelial cell regeneration by moving new cells
 Reticular fiber layer
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Deeper layer
Support
Glands
Epithelial cells that make and
secrete a product
Products are water-based and
usually contain proteins
Classified as:
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Exocrine
Endocrine
Uni-/multicellular
Page 116
Glands:
epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Exocrine Glands
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Secrete substance onto body surface or into
body cavity
Activity is local
Have ducts (simple vs. compound)
Unicellular (goblet cells) or Multicellular
(tubular, alveolar, tubuloalveolar)
(ex) salivary, mammary,
pancreas, liver
Glands: epithelial cells that make and
secrete a water-based substance w/proteins
Endocrine Glands
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Secrete product into blood stream
Either stored in secretory cells or in follicle
surrounded by secretory cells
Hormones travel to target organ to
increase response (excitatory)
No ducts
(ex) pancreas, adrenal,
pituitary, thyroid
4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
4 Types of Connective Tissue
1)
2)
3)
4)
Connective Tissue Proper
Cartilage
Bone Tissue
Blood
Connective Tissue (CT):
most abundant and diverse tissue
Four Classes
Functions include connecting, storing &
carrying nutrients, protection, fight
infection
CT contains large amounts of non-living
extracellular matrix
Some types vascularized
All CT originates from mesenchyme
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Embryonic connective tissue
1) Connective Tissue Proper
Two kinds: Loose CT & Dense CT
Prototype: Loose Areolar Tissue
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Underneath epithelial tissue
Functions
 Support and bind to other tissue
 Hold body fluids
 Defends against infection
 Stores nutrients as fat
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Each function performed by different kind of
fiber in tissue
Fibers in Connective Tissue
Fibers For Support
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Reticular:
 form networks for structure & support
 (ex) cover capillaries
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Collagen:
 strongest, most numerous, provide tensile strength
 (ex) dominant fiber in ligaments
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Elastic:
 long + thin, stretch and retain shape
 (ex) dominant fiber in elastic cartilage
In Connective Tissue Proper
Fibroblasts:
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cells that produce all fibers in CT
produce + secrete protein subunits to make them
produce ground matrix
Interstitial (Tissue) Fluid
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derived from blood in CT proper
medium for nutrients, waste + oxygen to travel to cells
found in ground matrix
Ground Matrix (substance):
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part of extra-cellular material that holds and absorbs
interstitial fluid
Made and secreted by fibroblasts
jelly-like with sugar & protein molecules
Defense from Infection
Areolar tissue below epithelium is body’s first
defense
Cells travel to CT in blood
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Macrophages-eat foreign particles
Plasma cells-secrete antibodies, mark molecules for
destruction
Mast cells-contain chemical mediators for
inflammation response
White Blood Cells = neutrophils, lymphocytes,
eosinophils-fight infection
Ground substance + cell fibers-slow invading
microorganisms
Specialized Loose CT Proper
Adipose tissue-loaded with adipocytes,
highly vascularized, high metabolic activity
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Insulates, produces energy, supports
 (eg) in hypodermis under skin
Reticular CT-contains only reticular fibers
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Forms caverns to hold free cells
 (eg) bone marrow, holds blood cells
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Forms internal “skeleton” of some organs
 (eg) lymph nodes, spleen
Dense/Fibrous Connective Tissue
Contains more collagen
Can resist extremely strong pulling forces
Regular vs. Irregular
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Regular-fibers run same direction, parallel to pull
 (eg) fascia, tendons, ligaments
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Irregular-fibers thicker, run in different directions
 (eg) dermis, fibrous capsules at ends of bones
Components of CT Proper Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Fibroblasts
Gel-like ground
substance
Defense cells
Collagen fibers
Reticular fibers
Elastic fibers
-macrophages
-white blood cells
Adipocytes
2) Cartilage
Chondroblasts produce cartilage
Chondrocytes mature cartilage cells
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Reside in lacunae
More abundant in embryo than adult
Firm, Flexible
Resists compression
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(eg) trachea, meniscus
Avascular (chondrocytes can function w/ low oxygen)
NOT Innervated
Perichondrium
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dense, irregular connective tissue around cartilage
growth/repair of cartilage
resists expansion during compression of cartilage
Cartilage in the Body
Three types:
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Hyaline
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most abundant
fibrils in matrix
support via flexibility/resilience
(eg) at limb joints, ribs, nose
Elastic
 many elastic fibers in matrix too
 great flexibility
 (eg) external ear, epiglottis
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Fibrocartilage
 resists both compression and
tension
 (eg) meniscus, annulus fibrosus
Components of Cartilage Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Chondrocytes
Gel-like ground
substance
Chondroblasts
Lots of water
(in growing cartilage)
Some have collagen and
elastic fibers
Histology of Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
Histology of Cartilage
Elastic Cartilage
Histology of Cartilage
Fibrocartilage
www.indigo.com/software/gphpcd/his49-52.html
3) Bone Tissue:(a bone is an organ)
Well-vascularized
Function:
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support (eg) pelvic bowl, legs
protect (eg) skull, vertebrae
mineral storage (eg) calcium, phosphate
(inorganic component)
movement (eg) walk, grasp objects
blood-cell formation (eg) red bone marrow
Bone Tissue
Osteoblasts
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Secrete organic part of bone matrix
Osteocytes
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Mature bone cells
Maintain bone matrix
Osteoclasts
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Degrade and reabsorb bone
Periosteum
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External layer of CT that surrounds bone (except at
joints)
Endosteum
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Internal layer of CT that lines cavities and covers
trabeculae
academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../skeletal.htm
Compact Bone
External layer
Osteon (Haversian system)
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Parallel to the long axis of the bone
Groups of concentric tubules (lamella)
Lamella = layer of bone matrix where all fibers
run in the same direction
 Adjacent lamella fibers run in opposite directions
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Haversian Canal runs thru center of osteon
 Contains BV and nerves
www.mc.vanderbilt.edu/.../CartilageandBone03.htm
Bone Anatomy: Spongy bone
Spongy bone (cancellous bone): internal layer
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Trabeculae: small, needle-like pieces of bone form
honeycomb
 each made of several layers of lamellae +
osteocytes
 no canal for vessels
 space filled with bone marrow
 not as dense, no direct stress at bone’s center
Pg 123
Shapes of Bones
Flat = skull, sternum, clavicle
Irregular = pelvis, vertebrae
Short = carpals, patella
Long = femur, phalanges,
metacarpals, humerus
Anatomy of a Long Bone
Diaphysis
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Medullary Cavity
Nutrient Art & Vein
2 Epiphyses
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Epiphyseal Plates
Epiphyseal Art & Vein
Periosteum
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Outer: Dense irregular CT
Inner: Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
Does not cover epiphyses
Attaches to bone matrix via collagen
fibers
Endosteum
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Osteoblasts, osteoclasts
Covers trabeculae, lines medullary
cavity
training.seer.cancer.gov/.../illu_long_bone.jpg
2 Types of Bone Formation
Endochondral Ossification: All other bones
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Begins with a cartilaginous model
Perichondrium becomes replaced by periosteum
Cartilage calcifies
Medullary cavity is formed by action of osteoclasts
Epiphyses grow and eventually calcify
 Epiphyseal plates remain cartilage for up to 20 years
Intramembranous Ossification
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Membrane bones: most skull bones and clavicle
Osteoblasts in membrane secrete osteoid that mineralizes
Trabeculae form between blood vessels, thickens to become
compact bone at periphery
Osteocytes maintain new bone tissue
Periosteum forms over it
Bone Growth & Remodeling
GROWTH
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Appositional Growth = widening of bone
 Bone tissue added on surface by osteoblasts of periosteum
 Medullary cavity maintained by osteoclasts
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Lengthening of Bone
 Epiphyseal plates enlarge by chondroblasts
 Matrix calcifies (chondrocytes die and disintegrate)
 Bone tissue replaces cartilage on diaphysis side
REMODELING
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Due to mechanical stresses on bones, their tissue
needs to be replaced
 Osteoclasts-take up bone ( = breakdown) release Ca2++ ,
PO4 to body fluids from bone
 Osteoblasts-form new bone by secreting osteoid
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Ideally osteoclasts and osteoblasts work at the
same rate!
Histology of Bone
“Ground” Compact Bone
Components of Bone Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Osteoblasts
Gel-like ground substance
calcified with inorganic
salts
Osteocytes
Collagen Fibers
Osteoclasts
4) Blood: Atypical Connective Tissue
Function:
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Transports waste, gases, nutrients,
hormones through cardiovascular system
Helps regulate body temperature
Protects body by fighting infection
Derived from mesenchyme
Hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
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Occurs in red bone marrow
In adults, axial skeleton, girdles, proximal
epiphyses of humerus and femur
Blood Cells
Erythrocytes: (RBC) small, oxygen-transporting
most abundant in blood
no organelles, filled w/hemoglobin
pick up O2 at lungs, transport to rest of body
Platelets = Thrombocytes: fragments of cytoplasm
plug small tears in vessel walls, initiates clotting
Leukocytes: (WBC) complete cells , 5 types
fight against infectious microorganisms
stored in bone marrow for emergencies
Components of Blood Summarized
Cells
Matrix
Erythrocytes
(red blood cells)
Plasma
(liquid matrix)
Leukocytes
(white blood cells)
NO fibers
Platelets
4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells/fibers
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Elongated
Contain many myofilaments: Actin & Myosin
FUNCTION
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Movement
Maintenance of posture
Joint Stabilization
Heat Generation
Three types: Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
(each skeletal muscle is an organ)
Cells
 Long and cylindrical, in bundles
 Multinucleate
 Obvious Striations
Skeletal Muscles-Voluntary
Connective Tissue Components:
 Endomysium-surrounds fibers
 Perimysium-surrounds bundles
 Epimysium-surrounds the muscle
Attached to bones, fascia, skin
Origin & Insertion
academic.kellogg.cc.mi.us/.../muscular.htm
Cardiac Muscle
Cells
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Branching, chains of cells
Single or Binucleated
Striations
Connected by Intercalated discs
Cardiac Muscle-Involuntary
Myocardium-heart muscle
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Pumps blood through vessels
Connective Tissue Component
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Endomysium: surrounding cells
www.answers.com
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Cells
Single cells, uninucleate
No striations
Smooth Muscle-Involuntary
2 layers-opposite orientation (peristalsis)
Lines hollow organs, blood vessels
Connective Tissue Component
Endomysium: surrounds cells
4 Types of Tissue
1)Epithelium
2)Connective
3)Muscle
4)Nervous
Nervous Tissue
Neurons: specialized nerve cells
conduct impulses

Cell body, dendrite, axon
Interneuron: between motor &
sensory neuron in CNS
Characterized by:
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No mitosis (cell replication)
Longevity
High metabolic rate
www.morphonix.com
Nervous Tissue: control
Support cells (= Glial): nourishment,
insulation, protection
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Satellite cells-surround cell bodies within
ganglia
Schwann cells-surround axons
Microglia-phagocytes
Oligodendrocytes-produce myelin sheaths
around axons
Ependymal cells-line brain/spinal cord,
ciliated,help circulate CSF
Brain, spinal cord, nerves
Integumentary System
Functions
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Protection
 Mechanical, thermal, chemical, UV
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Cushions & insulates deeper organs
Prevention of water loss
Thermoregulation
Excretion
 Salts, urea, water
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Sensory reception
Microanatomy - Layers of the
Skin
Epidermis
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Keratinocytes
Dermis
Hypodermis / subcutis
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Loose connective tissue
Anchors skin to bone or muscle
Skin Appendages = outgrowths of epidermis
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Hair follicles
Sweat and Sebaceous glands
Nails
15minbeauty.blogspot.com
Cell Layers of the Epidermis
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum
Stratum
corneum
(superficial)
lucidum
granulosum
spinosum
basale
(deep)
15minbeauty.blogspot.com
Layers of the Dermis
Highly innervated
Highly vascularized
Collagen & Elastic fibers
2 layers:
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Papillary layer (20%)
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Areolar CT
Collagen
Innervation
Hair follicles
Reticular layer (80%)
 DICT
 Glands

2.5 million sweat
glands!!
 Smooth muscle fibers
 Innervation
www.uptodate.com/.../Melanoma_anatomy.jpg
Hypodermis
Also called superficial fascia
Areolar & Adipose Connective Tissue
Functions
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Store fat
Anchor skin to muscle, etc.
Insulation
Structure of Tubular Organs
LUMEN
Tunica Mucosa
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Lamina epithelialis
Lamina propria
Lamina muscularis mucosa
Tunica Submucosa
Tunica Muscularis
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Inner circular
Outer longitudinal
Pg 313
Tunica Adventitia / Serosa
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Adventitia – covers organ directly
Serosa – suspends organ in the peritoneal cavity