EDM 6210
Education Policy and Society
Lecture 6
Education Policy and Social Differentiation:
Theorizing Social Inequality and Stratification
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Inequality and Stratification as
Social Institution
1. Durability or even inevitability of social
inequality in human society
2. Universality and resilience of social inequality
in human society
3. Studies of the durability and resilience of
unequal human relationship in modern
society: Theorizing social inequality and
stratification
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Inequality and Stratification as
Social Institution
4. “Stratification system refers the complex of
social institutions that generate inequalities…
The key components of such systems are (1)
the institutional processes that define certain
types of goods as valuable and desirable, (2)
the rules of allocation that distribute these
goods across various positions or
occupations in the division of labor, (3) the
mobility mechanisms that link individuals to
occupations and thereby generate control
over valued resources.” (Grusky, 1994, p.3)
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Inequality and Stratification as
Social Institution
5. Education and social stratification
a. Education as process of distributing educational
inequality and subsequently socioeconomic
inequality
b. Education as the rule of the game (i.e. institution)
defining and legitimatizing educational and
socioeconomic inequality
c. Education as the mobility mechanism of
redistributing and/or reproducing educational
inequality
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Inequality and Stratification as
Social Institution
6. The institutional contradictions of education in
modern society
a. The structural contradiction of modern schooling
system
 Inequality: The structural imperative of capitalist class structure
on the output of education system
 Equality: The structural imperative of democratic citizenship on
the process of education system
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Inequality and Stratification as
Social Institution
6. The institutional contradictions of education in
modern society…
b. The functional contradiction of modern schooling
system
 Schooling is to prepare children to be employable,
effective, efficient and competitive labor in capitalistglobal market
 Schooling is to prepare children to be free, equal, rational
and articulating citizen in liberal-democracy
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Social Inequality: A Social Phenomenon
1. Wright’s definition and typology of inequality
a. “To speak of a social inequality is to describe
some valued attributes which can be distributed
across the relevant units of a society in different
quantities, where ‘inequality’ therefore implies that
different units process different amount of the this
attribute.” (Wright, 1994, p.21)
b. Typology of inequality
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Typology of Forms of Inequality
Form of the Unequal Attribute
Form of the
Process of
Distribution
Relational
Monadic
Relational
Power, Status
Income
Monadic
Talent
Height
(Wright, 1994, p.24)
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Social Inequality: A Social Phenomenon
2. Grusky’s forms of social inequality: David B.
Grusky categorizes social inequality in
accordance with the types of assets in
allocation
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
z Grusky’s definition
“Stratification system refers the complex of social
institutions that generate inequalities… The key
components of such systems are (1) the institutional
processes that define certain types of goods as
valuable and desirable, (2) the rules of allocation that
distribute these goods across various positions or
occupations in the division of labor, (3) the mobility
mechanisms that link individuals to occupations and
thereby generate control over valued resources.”
(Grusky, 1994, p.3)
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
2. Conceptual dimensions of social stratification
study
a. The degree of inequality: It refers to the extent of
dispersion or concentration of a given of assets
(i.e. income) across the individuals in the
population.
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
2. Conceptual dimensions of social stratification
study
b. The rigidity of stratification: It refers to “continuity
(over time) in the social standing of its members.
The stratification system is said to be highly rigid,
for example, if the current wealth, power, or
prestige of individuals can be accurately predicted
on the basis of their statuses or those of their
parents.” (Grusky, 1994, p. 5-6)
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
2. Conceptual dimensions of social stratification
study
c. Crystallization of inequality: It refers to the extent
of correlations among the various assets in a
given society. “If these correlations are strong,
then the same individuals (the ‘upper class’) will
consistently appear at the top of all status
hierarchies, and other individuals (the ‘lower
class’) will consistently appear at the bottom of
the stratification systems.” (Grusky, 1994, p. 6)
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
2. Conceptual dimensions of social stratification
study
d. Ascription vs. achievement process: It refers to
the principles of allocation in use in the allocation
process of a given asset to the eligible individuals.
By ascription process, it refers to the allocation
process is primarily determined by individuals’
“traits present at birth (e.g. sex, race, ethnicity,
parental wealth, nationality)” (Grusky, 1994, p. 6);
while achievement process refers to the allocation
process is mainly determined by individuals’ own
abilities and efforts.
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
3. Education and social stratification systems in
modern society
a. Thesis of meritocracy: It is argued by functionalist
sociologists such as Talcott Parsons that as human
societies developed from traditionalism to
industrialism, the principle of allocation in use in
stratification system will shifted from ascription to
achievement.
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
3. Education and social stratification systems in
modern society
b. It is further argued that as a result the incumbents
in the upper strata in traditional society, i.e.
aristocracy (ascribed their statuses by birth) will be
replaced by meritocracy in the modern society.
c. By meritocracy, it refers to individuals who have
achieved and possessed merits which are socially
recognized as relevant to a given social hierarchy
(e.g. economic wealth, political power or cultural
prestige) and as a result rise to the upper strata of
the respective social hierarchy.
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
3. Education and social stratification systems in
modern society
d. In Michael Young’s conception, merits that are
most commonly in use in achievement-oriented
social institutions in modern society are
intelligence and efforts. And these two kinds of
merits can most effectively be verified and
certified in modern educational system.
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Social Stratification: A Social Institution
3. Education and social stratification systems in
modern society
e. Model of meritocracy
Education Attainment
Social origin
Social Destination
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Functionalism
1. Functionalist Approach to stratification
a. The nature of inequality: Technocracy and
Meritocracy
b. The structure of stratification: division of labor
and occupational groupings
c. Gradational approach to inequality in
occupational structure
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Functionalism
2. Davis and Moore’s functionalist principles of
stratification
a. Functionally more important positions and their
performances required special skills
b. Limited supply of talents and trained skills to fill
these important positions and perform tasks
expected from incumbents of these positions
c. Sacrifice/cost of conversion of talents into skills
d. Additional rewards are needed to induce talented
persons to fill these positions
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Functionalism
2. Davis and Moore’s functionalist principles of
stratification
e. Functionally more important positions are
therefore institutionally attached with additional
rewards
f. Institutionalization of social inequality is positively
functional and inevitable in any society
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Functionalism
3. Tumin’s critique on Davis and Moore’s
Thesis
a. Tautology of the proposition of functionally
important positions
b. Scarcity of talent is not the cause but the result of
stratification
c. The sacrifice fallacy
d. The reward controversy
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Functionalism
4. Tumin’s thesis on the dysfunctions of
stratification
a. Social stratification functions to limit the
possibility of discovery of the full range of talent
available of a society
b. Social stratification functions to limit the
possibility of expanding the productive resources
of a society
c. Social stratification functions to rationalize the
inequality of the status quo and legitimize the
power of the ruling elite
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Functionalism
4. Tumin’s thesis on the dysfunctions of
stratification
a. Social stratification functions to limit the
possibility of discovery of the full range of talent
available of a society
b. Social stratification functions to limit the
possibility of expanding the productive resources
of a society
c. Social stratification functions to rationalize the
inequality of the status quo and legitimize the
power of the ruling elite
d. Social stratification functions to distribute self- 28
images unevenly throughout a population and
Theorizing Social Stratification:
Functionalism
4. Tumin’s thesis on the dysfunctions of
stratification
d. Social stratification functions to distribute selfimages unevenly throughout a population and
therefore function to limit the development of the
creative potential of a society
e. Social stratification functions to create inequality
which entails hostility, suspicion and distrust
among members of a society. As a result it limits
the possibility of extensive social integration
f. Social stratification functions to distribute
unequally the sense of significant, loyalty, and
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motivation of participation in a population
Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approch
1. Weberian Approach to stratification
a. The nature of inequality: Domination
b. The structure of stratification: Three-dimensional
structure
 Wealth/property,
 power, &
 honor/lifestyle
c. Relational approach to inequality in class, political
and social structures / economic, political and
social orders
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
1. Max Weber’s conceptions of Power,
Domination, Order
a. Power: "The chance of a man or of a number of men
to realize their own will in a communal action even
against the resistance of others who are
participating in the action." (1948/91, p.180)
b. "Domination refers to a meaningful interrelationship
between those giving orders and those obeying, to
the effect that the expectations toward which action
is oriented on both sides can be reckon upon."
(1968/78, p. 1378)
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
1. Max Weber’s conceptions of Power,
Domination, Order
c. Weber’s two bases of domination
 Monopoly of interest
 Legitimation and authority
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
“(T)here are two diametrically contrasting type
of domination, viz., domination by virtue of
constellation of interest (in particular: by virtue
of a position of a monopoly), and domination by
virtue of authority, i.e. power to command and
duty to obey. The purest type of the former is
monopolistic domination in the market; of the
latter, patriarchal, magisterial, or princely
power.” (Weber, 1978, p.942).
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
1. Max Weber’s conceptions of Power,
Domination, Order
d. Economically conditioned power and the
constitution of economic order
e. Power conditioned by social honor and the
constitution of social order
f. Power in its intrinsic form (physical force or
legitimate authority) and the constitution of
political order
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
2. Three domains of stratification
a. Classes in economic order
 Economic order refers to "the ways in which economic
goods and services are distributed and used." (1948/91,
P. 181)
 Classes are typical groups in a given economic order
and participating in the distribution of economic goods
and services
b. Status groups in social order
 Social order refers to "the way in which social honor is
distributed in a community." (1948/91, P. 181)
 Status groups are "typical groups" in a given social
order and participating in the distribution of social
honor
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
2. Three domains of stratification
c. Parties in political order
 Political order refers to the way in which both physical
force and legitimate authority are distributed in a
community
 Parties are “typical groups” in the arena power contest in
a given community
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
4. Parkin’s theory of social closure
a. Social closure as form of monopolization of
specific opportunity
 Exclusion
 Usurpation
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“Exclusionary closure represents the use of power in a
‘downward’ direction because it necessarily entails the
creation of a group, class, or stratum of legally defined
inferiors. Countervailing action by the ‘negatively
privileged’, on the other hand, represents the use of
power in an upward direction in the sense that
collective attempts by the excluded to win a greater
share of resources always threaten to bite into the
privileges of legally defined superiors. It is in other
words a form of action having usurpation as its goal.
Exclusion and usurpation may therefore be regarded
as the two main generic type of social closure” (Parkin,
1994, p.144).
39
Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
4. Parkin’s theory of social closure
b. Mechanism of social closure
 Property ownership
 Credentialism
40
Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
• Property rights as a form of social closure
mechanism
• Armen A. Alchain, private property rights consists
of three elements. They "are
• exclusivity of rights to choose the use of the
resource,
• exclusivity of rights to the services of a resource,
and
• rights to exchange the resource at mutually
agreeable terms."
(http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/PropertyRights.html)
41
“In the modern capitalist society the two main
exclusionary devices by which the bourgeoisie constructs
and maintains itself as a class are, first, those
surrounding the institutions of property; and second,
academic or professional qualifications and credentials.
Each represents a set of legal arrangements for restricting
access to rewards and privileges: property ownership is a
form of closure designed to prevent general access to the
means of production and its fruits; credentialism is a
form of closure designed to control and monitor entry to
key positions in the division of labour. (Parkin, 1994,
p.144).
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Theorizing Social Stratification:
Weberian Approach
5. John H. Goldthorpe’s thesis of class analysis
a. Class structure
b. Class mobility
c. Class consequences
 Class interest
 class action
 class struggle
43
Theorizing Social Stratification:
Marxist Approach
1. Marxist Approach to stratification
a. The nature of inequality: Exploitation
b. The structure of stratification: Capital and means
of production as the core and primary dimension
c. Relational approach to inequality in class
relation, class structure and class society
44
45
Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
2. Conceptualization of economic oppression
and exploitation
a. Three conditions of economic oppression
 The material welfare of one group of people causally
depends on the material deprivation of another.
 The causal relation in (a) involves the asymmetrical
exclusion of the exploited from access to certain
productive resources.
 The causal mechanism which translates exclusion (b)
into differential welfare (a) involves the appropriation of
the fruits of labor of the exploited by those who control
the relevant productive resources.
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
2. Conceptualization of economic oppression
and exploitation
b. Distinction between exploitative and nonexploitative economic oppressions
 “Economic exploitation is a specific form of economic
oppression defined by particular kind of mechanism
through which the welfare of exploiters is causally
related to the deprivations of the exploited. In
exploitation, the material well-being of exploiters causally
depends upon their ability to appropriate the fruits of
labor of the exploited. The welfare of the exploiter
therefore depends on the effort of the exploited, not
merely on the deprivations of the exploited.” (Wright,
1994)
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
2. Conceptualization of economic oppression
and exploitation…
b. Distinction between exploitative and nonexploitative economic oppressions ….
 “In non-exploitative economic oppression there is no
transfer of the fruit of labor from the oppressed to the
oppressor; the welfare of the oppressor depends on the
exclusion of the oppressed from access to certain
resources, but not on their effort.” (ibid)
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
c. The degree of moral indictment between exploitative
and non-exploitative economic oppression: The game
theory analysis of the case of manna from Heaven
(Wright, 1994, p. 41-42)
"Suppose that the gods decreed that manna from Heaven
would descend on a community that would be sufficient, if
evenly divided among people, to provide everyone with an
adequate, if not luxurious , standard of living without
expanding any labor. What would be the preferences of
different people in different classes for the distribution of this
boon?" (p. 42)
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
Preference
Ordering
Non-exploitative
oppressor
Exploiter
Oppressed &
Exploited
1
All manna to
oppressors
All manna to
exploiters
All manna to
oppressed/exploited
2
Evenly divided to
everyone
Destroy the
manna
Evenly divide the
manna
3
All manna to the
oppressed
Evenly divide
the manna
Give manna to the
exploiters
4
Destroy the
manna
Give manna to
the exploited
Destroy the manna
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
d. The abandonment of the labor theory of value
and the concept of surplus value
 Orthodox Thesis of exploitation
•
•
•
•
Socially necessary labor time determine value
Labor and labor alone create value
The laborer receives the value of his labor power
The value of the product is greater than the value of his
labor power
• The labor receives less value than he creates
• The capitalist appropriated the surplus value
• The laborer is exploited by the capitalist
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
d. The abandonment of the labor theory of value
and the concept of surplus value
b. Cohen’s reformulation of the labor theory of value
• The labor is the person who create the product, that
which has value
• The capitalist appropriates some of the value of the
product
• The labor receives less value than the value of the
laborer created
• The capitalist appropriates some of the value of what the
laborer creates
• The laborer is exploited by the capitalist
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Theorizing Inequality and Social Class:
Analytical Marxist Approach
3. Research Agenda in class analysis
a. Class structure: Concept of class in itself and
class place
b. Class consciousness and class formation:
Concept of class for itself and class position
c. Class struggle
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Synthesis: Comparison between Weberian
and Marxist Approaches to Class Analysis
Conception of Class
Class Structure Analysis
Weberian Approach
Marxist Approach
Economic Domination
Economic Exploitation
Economic Inequality
Economic Inequality
Class Mobility
Class Structure
Class Structure
Class Formation Analysis
Class Interest
Class Consciousness
Class Action
Class Struggle
Class Struggle
- Exclusion
- Class revolution
- Usurpation
- Class Dictatorship
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Lecture 6
Education Policy and Social Differentiation:
Theorizing Social Inequality and Stratification
END
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