Focus Area 5A3 Issues in
Australian Environments
Land and water management
Land Management
Activity – Develop a flowchart to show changes
in land management practices.
Land Management
Land management refers to the way humans use
the land, along with the plants and animals living
on it, as a resource to fulfill the needs of society
 The ways humans have utilized the land in
Australia - the driest and least fertile inhabited
continent of the world - have transformed
markedly over the past 200 years.

Land Management – Traditional
Indigenous
◦ Indigenous people inhabited Australia for tens of thousands of
years prior to the European invasion
◦ They lived a nomadic existence hence after spending time in a
certain place relocated to another region, allowing the land and
resources they used to rejuvenate.
◦ This process ensured the conservation of natural resources and
prevented the degradation of the Australian landscape.
◦ Aboriginal landowners continue to be reliant on the natural
environment for both spiritual, social and economic well-being.
http://www.nlc.org.au/html/care_con.html
Land Management – European
Management
◦ Europeans settled in permanent
locations, using the land for agriculture
and depleting natural resources for
industry.
◦ This increased the productivity of the
land, brought about economic gains
and richness in terms of food and
material goods.
◦ However, vast areas of the Australian
landscape have been degraded to the
point they can no longer be
considered a resource.
◦ Farmers used chemicals and fertilisers
to accommodate the harsh Australian
soils, which were naturally unsuitable
for the cultivation of European-style
crops.
◦ As dry land salinity caused by land
clearing made the problem of infertile
soils worse, the use of chemicals
became more widespread leading to
the problem of acid soil and toxic soil.
◦ During periods of heavy rain, runoff
from land where these products had
been used began to contaminate our
rivers, causing massive algal blooms
(build-ups of toxic blue-green algae).
◦ Technological advancements in
machinery and irrigation technology in
the twentieth century saw the creation
of monocultures (large areas of a single
crop).
◦ This made farming less labour intensive
and brought economic advantageous
but saw reduction in humans' contact
with the land, degradation of soil
composition and structure, and a
decrease in employment and
population levels in rural areas.
http://www.waikatoregion.govt.nz/PageFiles/6450/Report1.jpg
Land Management – Contemporary
Management
◦ In recent times individuals, groups and
governments have joined forces to
manage and protect land and water
resources sustainably in Australia.
◦ New approaches such as total or
integrated catchment management, where
a whole river system is managed from the
headwaters to the mouth, are being
implemented.
◦ New technology and farming practices
are also helping to sustainably manage
and protect resources.
Landuse

The way land is managed can be looked at in terms of the way the land is used and what it
is used for i.e. “landuse”.

Many factors influence landuse in a catchment.
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
The history of settlement of an area and how it changed over time.
Changing relief.
Elevation.
Soil fertility.
Vegetation cover.
Geology.
Proximity to transport.
Drainage and supply of water.
Source
Sue van ZuylenGlyn TrethewyHelen McIsaac
Geography Focus 2 Page 178

Most catchments have a mixture of landuses that vary with the conditions that occur there.
Activity
Investigate pioneer settlers to your catchment and land use in the area.
http://www.heritageaustralia.com.au/links .
Management Issues Created by Different Land Uses

Each land use causes its own set of impacts on the landscape and management issues to deal with.
Each land use brings with it land management requirements to deal with these impacts and
include:
◦
◦
◦

Activities that deplete soil nutrients, soil structure and/or destroy soil microbes eventually reduce
the ability of an area to grow plants productively. Plants are important because their products
include:
◦
◦
◦

Crops that feed animals and people.
Forests that provide timber.
Surface cover that binds the soil together and provides organic matter for soil formation.
Removal of vegetation cover result in soil being exposed so that it can be blown away by wind or
carried away by water – this is called erosion.Vegetation removal results from:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦

Retention of productive soils;
Maintenance of a substantial vegetation cover; and
Treatment/disposal of by-products or wastes that might contaminate soil, water or air.
Overgrazing
Land clearing,
Harvesting/tilling soil,
Mining and
Through fire
Unsustainable activities that do not treat or appropriately dispose of wastes produced by the
activity will eventually have an environmental impact. Wastes or by-products, unless treated,
recycled or appropriately disposed of, will eventually reach levels that cause environmental
problems.
Geographical processes leading to land degradation

Land degradation refers to the deterioration of land resources. It affects:
◦
◦
Soil health and productivity. Healthy topsoil provides the majority of nutrients, such as nitrogen and
phosphorus, on which flora and fauna are dependent.
Impacts upon rivers, wetlands and lakes where soils are deposited.

Severe degradation is found in New South Wales,Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia.

According to the World Resources Institute, Australian soil degradation is caused primarily by
◦
◦
◦
◦

Overgrazing—79 per cent. If animals like sheep, goats and cattle graze an area too heavily, then it is difficult
for the grasses to recover and keep soil bound together.
Deforestation—12 per cent. Land is cleared for timber and paper products, but also for agriculture, mining,
settlements and industry.
Cropping—8 per cent. Agriculture produces food and fibres for the Australian population and for export. A
general increase has occurred due to high-tech farming including the use of fertilisers, herbicides, pesticides,
large machinery and genetically modified seeds.
Industrialisation, including mining, energy production and pollution—1 per cent. Land is degraded through
industrial uses like the extraction of minerals from the Earth’s crust, power stations and factories as well as
pollution from industrial and urban sources.
Geographical processes that lead to land
degradation include:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Erosion
Salinity
Soil acidification
Soil compaction
Weed invasion
Introduced species.
Activity
Describe, beginning
with a definition
one of the
geographical
processes listed.
Land Clearing

Clearing of native vegetation occurs for forestry, cropping, irrigation, grazing, roads, housing, mining, refineries, and other
uses. Natural native vegetation provides a healthy environment for humans, supports biodiversity, economic activity and
recreation and contributes to the processes of water and nutrient cycling.

Land clearing for agriculture
◦ To establish an agricultural industry, vast areas of the Australian outback were cleared of their native vegetation. This
created pastures for sheep and cattle, and fields to grow crops. The large-scale clearing of forests and bush land has
meant during periods of heavy rain, more water is able to seep into the ground causing water tables to rise. As water
tables rise, they bring with them salts naturally found deep beneath the surface of the land. The excess salt
accumulates at the surface and increases salinity which makes it almost impossible for vegetation to survive. This cycle
continues and the surface of the land becomes exceptionally dry and infertile.
◦ Another rising concern in Australia is desertification. This occurs when increased salt levels in the soil turn once
arable (useful) land into a dry, desert-like landscape.

Land clearing for timber harvesting
◦ Enormous areas of bush land have also been logged (cleared) so timber can be harvested for wood chipping and the
building and construction industries. These processes exacerbated Australia's salinity crisis because logging allows
more water to seep into the deeper layers of earth meaning salt rises and accumulates at the surface.
◦ The process of logging also exposes top soil and makes the land extremely sensitive to wind and water erosion,
particularly during dust storms and periods of heavy rain. Problems associated with water erosion are worse when
vegetation is cleared in mountainous regions because the water begins to flow in channels, which become
progressively deeper and larger over time, known as gully erosion.

Perspectives on land clearing:
◦ Some politicians and urban green groups say native vegetation is becoming fragmented and vulnerable to weeds and
feral animals making it less able to provide habitat for wildlife and causing animal and plant species to become extinct.
◦ Farmers and scientists say land is being taken over by young invasive native scrub known as woody weed, resulting in
degradation, loss of native grasses, erosion and loss of biodiversity. They claim without the traditional regular
Aboriginal burning woody weeds leave land useless.
Management of Land Clearing

Federal government in 2001 initiated the ‘National Framework for the
Management and Monitoring of Australia’s Native Vegetation’,This is coordinated
strategy between the federal, state and territory governments to conserve native
vegetation by reducing land clearing and restoring degraded land.

State government—The New South Wales government implemented the Native
Vegetation Act 2003 to end broad-scale clearing, give flexibility to farmers,
provide guidelines for repairing damaged landscapes and rivers, and give power
to catchment management authorities to make decisions in the best interests of
the community. The Department of Natural Resources and the Department of
Environment and Conservation monitor vegetation and enforce the law.

Thirteen catchment management authorities have been established in New
South Wales. They consist of local people who aim to help farmers prepare
vegetation plans for their properties, provide incentives for improving vegetation
and monitor land clearing.

Individual farmers aim to make money from their land without degrading it so
they can pass the farm onto the next generation in the best economic condition.

Individuals can plant native species to replace those cleared.
Perspectives on native vegetation clearing
Source Sue van Zuylen, Glyn Trethewy, Helen McIsaac
Geography Focus 2 Page 193
Activity – Using figure 8.28 outline the differing
perspectives of individuals, groups and
governments on the native vegetation issue, land
clearing and its consequences.
Erosion

Erosion is defined as the loss of soil due to the actions of water and wind.

Erosion is a natural process but some human activities lead to its
acceleration. In Australia the rate of loss of topsoil is faster than the
creation of new soils. Eroded soils end up in waterways and are carried to
the ocean.

Types of Erosion and their management
◦ Sheet and rill erosion—This occurs when the top most productive layer of soil
is stripped by the action of raindrops and surface flows. This reduces plant
growth and increases siltation of waterways. It is prevented by maintaining a
thick cover of vegetation.
◦ Gully erosion - This is caused by fast-flowing water along streams or creeks,
which in turn causes steep channels. It damages structures like roads and
bridges and causes soil to be washed away resulting in the banks of the
waterway becoming unstable and useless. It is prevented by maintaining or
planting deep-rooted vegetation on stream banks.
◦ Wind erosion—This involves the movement of soil particles by wind action.
Fine dust can be carried into the atmosphere, and larger grains can bounce or
roll over the earth’s surface. It is prevented by planting windbreaks and
maintaining vegetation cover.
Salinity

Salinity is the increase in the concentration of salts naturally occurring near the soil surface such
as potassium, sodium and calcium, resulting in environmental degradation and lost soil productivity.

There are two types of salinity that affect Australian landscapes:
◦
◦
Primary salinity occurs as a result of natural processes such as low rainfalls and high levels of evaporation.
Secondary salinity is caused by humans using the land in ways that interfere with the natural properties of
the soil. Secondary salinity can be classed as either dry land or irrigation salinity.

Dry land salinity—Removal of deep-rooted plants, trees, shrubs and native grasses cause the
water table to rise. Crops replace this lost vegetation.When rainfall occurs, it soaks in past the
root zone of the crop and recharges the groundwater. This raises the water table and mobilises
salts in the soil, bringing them closer to the surface.

Irrigation salinity—Caused by the use of river water to irrigate (water) crops and pasture. Adding
water to crops causes rising water tables. Irrigation and rainfall together provide crops with more
water than they can use. The extra water draws salts deep in the soil up into the root zone where
the crops will use the water but leave salt deposited on the soil’s surface, forming a white patch
called a scald. The water eventually becomes so salty that vegetation can no longer use it and the
plants die. Water logging occurs as the water table continues to rise until it reaches the surface.
Salt from scalded or waterlogged areas can then be washed into waterways causing river salinity.
Impacts and
management of
salinity

Impacts –
◦ Crops and native vegetation perish leaving bare, infertile areas. Flora and invertebrates become
endangered or extinct.
◦ Money needs to be spent on salinity management. This involves planting salt tolerant species
and pumping saline water away.
◦ Salt in the soil, water logging and scalds damage roads causing the bitumen to break up.
◦ Salts washed into waterways end up in the salt drinking water. This occurred in Adelaide’s
drinking water, as salts were washed into the Murray River upstream. Water needs
desalinisation before drinking.
◦ Salt damages buildings as it salt rises through bricks and mortar (rising damp), causing
structures to corrode.

Management
◦ Monitor soil and water salinity across the whole catchment area.
◦ If a problem exists planting deep-rooted trees and plants that use a lot of water will help to
lower the water table.
◦ Plant salt tolerant species like saltbush and strawberry clover to rehabilitate salt-affected land.
◦ Fence out livestock, pump salty water away and irrigate sensibly.
Introduced species

Certain types of introduced animal species, such as the
European and American trout, have damaged Australia's
waterways and started to dominate native freshwater fauna.

Problematic introduced plant species, such as the water
hyacinth, have transformed into weed populations and are
currently devastating many of our rivers and lakes.

Weeds block waterways and form dense layers on the
surface of the water preventing much-needed sunlight from
reaching deep-rooted plants that grow under the water. This
decreases fish populations and reduce biodiversity, which are
vital for maintaining water quality.
Different types of land use

Land use in a particular area is broadly regulated by
planning laws administered by the NSW Department of
Planning and Local Government (Councils).

Councils prepare Local Environment Plans (LEP) that
create land use zones to identify the sort of land use
appropriate in each Local Government Area (LGA).
Activity
Investigate the Local Environment
Plan for your LGA and identify
the rural, residential and industrial
zone lands.
Conservation Land

In NSW a land reserve system organised by the Department
of Environment and Climate Change is used to conserve
different vegetation and habitat types so that a representative
amount of the State’s natural biodiversity is preserved for
the future.

Each reserve has a detailed Plan of Management that
identifies the priority management issues and options.
Activity - Investigate the Plan of Management for a National Park or
Nature Reserve in your area.
◦ http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/parks.nsf/WebMgmt/HTMLPage
s+Homepage
◦ http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/Content/Conservation+
plans+for+public+comment+by+DocType
Forestry

In NSW the Department of Primary Industries - Forests NSW regulates forestry activities
within the state.

Forests NSW has strict guidelines to ensure activities are sustainable. Guidelines include:
◦
◦
◦
◦

Requirements for road and drainage design and construction,
Buffer zones along streams,
Strict sediment and erosion controls for track and trails in forests.
Habitat retention requirements for wildlife.
These guidelines prevent excess sediment entering waterways which would:
◦
◦
◦
Make downstream waterways shallower
Areas less navigable by boats and more flood prone.
Estuaries would have sea grass beds smothered.
Activity –
Identify two important timber types obtained from forests nearby.
What are the uses of those timber types?
What are the problems confronting foresters if supply of these timber types is to continue?
◦
◦
http://www.forest.nsw.gov.au/managingsf/default.asp
http://www.forest.nsw.gov.au/ifoa/default.asp
Agriculture

Agriculture is a broad collection of different land uses
either:
that broadly relate to
◦ Production and rearing animal livestock; or
 Http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock
◦ Growing plants as produce – crops or horticulture.
 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/field
Source Sue van Zuylen, Glyn Trethewy, Helen McIsaac
Geography Focus 2 Page 188
 http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/horticulture

Agriculture is one of Australia's most vital national industries. It plays a key role in the nation's
economic well being (through exports), as well as the domestic population's well being (through
providing food). Australia is one of the world's largest exporters of farm commodities such as wool,
wheat, sugar, cotton and beef.

Agriculture has been the most environmentally damaging industry. The European methods of farming,
pastoralism (the use of the land to graze livestock) and cropping introduced by early settlers did not
suit the hostile climatic conditions of the drought and flood-prone Australian outback so had a severe
impact on the physical environment of Australia.

Agriculture is the major cause of Australia's salinity crisis, which is now one of the nation's most
pressing environmental concerns.
Activity - Investigate an animal and a plant based type of agriculture.
Identify its importance, the issues surrounding that type of agriculture and the environmental problems that can
come from that type of agriculture (including impacts on waterways).
Sustainable agricultural land uses

It has been posited by the United Nations that sustainable land management practices are: crucial to minimizing land
degradation, rehabilitating degraded areas, and ensuring optimal use of land resources for the benefit of present
and future generations.

The NSW DPI Agriculture and Catchment Management Authorities are trying to get rural landowners to ensure that
there agricultural practices are up to date and sustainable.

Training and funding for use of sustainable practices have enabled better environmental outcomes on farms including:
◦ Reduced fertiliser and pesticide use, by tramlining where vehicles used to sow, spray and fertilise crops always travel
along the same track and resulting in fewer nutrients being taken from the soil minimising problems like soil
acidification and algal blooms.
◦ Better feedlot management,
◦ Reduced erosion by having fewer stock on land to conserve ground plants and planting trees as windbreaks.
◦ Protection of waterways (e.g. keeping stock out of streams to prevent waste contaminating the waterway).
◦ Controlling exotic plant species and weeds by spraying, cutting, ploughing and burning to encourage native plant
growth and biodiversity.
◦ Minimum disturbance of soil by ploughing through minimum tillage techniques like directly drilling crop seeds into the
ground.

Positively, recent trends show that more sustainable methods of farming and agriculture are experiencing an increase in
popularity in Australia. Common examples are listed below:
Merging crops and farm animals together in mixed systems.
Farmers replace synthetic chemicals and fertilisers with natural substitutes such as farmyard manure. This is organic
farming.
Unsuitable crops are replaced with legumes and cereals (which are more suited to Australia's physical environment)
Replanting trees in areas that were cleared for agriculture.
1.
2.
3.
4.

These approaches reduces erosion of river banks caused by stock and help retain a healthy zone of native vegetation
which acts as a filter reducing sediment and nutrient flows and thus maintaining a healthy aquatic environment for good
water quality and healthy fish populations. Unfortunately many impacts of land degradation are irreversible. Only changes
that are environmentally, socially and economically sustainable will have the capacity to reverse this situation.
Agriculture – genetic engineering

Increasingly, although somewhat controversially, genetic engineering
(sometimes referred to as biotechnology) is now being used in the
Australian agricultural industry, particularly by cotton and canola growers.
In 2001 around one-third of all cotton produced in Australia was from
GM crops

Advantages
◦
◦
◦
◦

Create crop strains that are resistant to pests and weeds.
Reduce the need for farmers to use toxic chemicals.
Increased yields for genetically modifies (GM) crops.
Less land is cleared to create crop fields and more of the
landscape can be regenerated.
Australian
Disadvantages
◦ Many farmers and environmentalists are against the use of biotechnology, believing
that the potential dangers override the benefits.
◦ Crop varieties engineered to be chemically resistant to certain pests may end up
killing non-target species.
◦ Threats to biodiversity.
Mining

Mining and other extractive industries are often large scale so have the potential to
significantly change the landscape.

The resources they provide are often essential so the community has to weigh up the
environmental costs compared to the benefits.

Mines often lead to:
◦
◦
◦
◦
Large areas of vegetation being removed,
The diversion and sometimes capture of streams,
Changes to salinity
Other water quality issues.
Source http://www.kidsolo.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Mining-tax.jpg



Activity - Investigate Coal Mining, Iron Ore mining, Bauxite mining.
Where are they located, what products do they supply us with and what are the different mining
methods used?
What are some of the environmental costs of mining in NSW – other parts of Australia?
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/minerals/environment/overview
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/minerals/geological/mineral-maps-data
http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/minerals/geological/geological-maps
Residential land

This is a high intensity land use as it is associated with construction of houses / dwellings for
owner occupiers or tenants to live in.

Most of the natural ground cover is removed leaving a high proportion of ‘hard stand’
surfaces such as roofs, driveways, roads and gutters (impervious surfaces that do not allow
water including rain to pass through easily.

Services including sewerage, water supply, garbage removal, power, gas, storm water and
telecommunications are usually required.

Chemicals and the by-products of many activities including littering are prone to being
washed via the storm water system (gutters and drains) into creek systems causing
problems for marine life e.g. ingestion, entanglement and strangulation injuries causing death.

The first flush of rainwater from urban catchments is often full of contaminants, wastes and
nutrients.
Activity –
Investigate what people can do to prevent poor water quality from urban storm water runoff.

http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/beach/cpp/index.htm

http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/litter/index.htm

http://www.amsa.gov.au/Marine_Environment_Protection/Protection_of_Pollution_from_Ships/

http://www.aad.gov.au/default.asp?casid=3418

http://www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au/npws.nsf/content/marine_debris_ktp_declaration

http://www.amcs.org.au/default2.asp?active_page_id=194
Industrial lands

Industry can be divided into light and heavy industry business types.

Industries causing lots of pollution are required to be licensed by the NSW
Department of Environment and Climate Change (DECC) in NSW to carry out
their activity.

Other industries and businesses have pollution regulated by local councils.

From time to time DECC, the local Catchment Management Authority and
Councils have programs to educate business operators about good ‘sustainable’
environmental practices and provide incentives for businesses.
Activity –
Investigate Solutions to Pollution and the higher risk business types and what sorts
of things these businesses should do to be clean and environmentally sustainable.
 http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/for_industry.htm
 http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/for_teachers_and_students.htm
Land use laws and policies

In NSW the main piece of legislation that determines urban land use is the
Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979. This legislation
determines the land use zoning of a piece of land. Each Council area in
NSW has a Local Environment Plan to decide its land use zoning.

Councils make individual decisions about how a particular piece of land
will be used. A piece of land zoned rural is able to do certain basic rural
activities without further permissions but other activities might require a
special approval.

Landholders must abide by the Native Vegetation Act 2003, the Native
Vegetation Regulation 2005 and the Threatened Species Conservation Act
1995, which regulate clearing of native vegetation on their land.

Landholders are regulated in their use of pesticides and fertilisers to some
degree under the Pesticides Act 1999 and the Fertilisers Act 1985.

Protection of the Environment Operations Act 1997 prevents people’s
activities polluting the environment.
Catchment management authorities (CMA’s),
Councils, Other State Departments
Encouraging best practice standards for all
allowed activities.
 Prevent illegal activities in the catchment.

Water management


Water management in a catchment is generally about:
◦
Management of water for use by people for drinking and other household uses.
◦
Its use by business, industry, agriculture.
◦
Providing stream flows to maintain environmental health of the stream itself.
◦
Ensuring during normal rain water is diverted as quickly as possible into gutters,
drains and other structures.
◦
Managing flooding.
◦
Waste management.
Source
http:hoodoocrossroads.file
s.wordpress.com/2011/02/3
3_04_3-watertexture_web.jpg
Activity – Complete a power point presentation on Water
management for the Murray Darling River system using the PDF
and worksheet provided.
Water is used for many purposes in Australia.
◦
◦
◦
◦
The consumptive uses of this water include domestic and drinking supplies, irrigation,
agriculture and industry. Other uses include recreation, fishing and hydroelectricity.
Urban and domestic uses. In urban areas it is used in factories, sewage treatment,
recreation, gardens, parks and sporting fields, as well as around the home. In the home,
water has numerous uses such as drinking, cleaning, hygiene and cooking.
Energy production, mining and industry. Water is used in coal-fired power stations to
make steam to turn turbines. Approximately 7 per cent of Australia’s power comes from
hydroelectricity where the energy of falling water drives the turbines.
Environment. Water is released and allocated specifically for the environment.
Environmental flows are important in protecting and conserving natural ecosystems. For
example, 38 gigalitres of water is diverted into the Snowy River from the Jindabyne Dam
every year as an environmental flow. The eventual target is 21 per cent of natural flow by
2012.
Issues in water management

Water quality problems
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Source
http://hoodoocrossroads.file
s.wordpress.com/2011/02/3
3_04_3-watertexture_web.jpg
◦
◦
◦
Pollution from point sources like sewage treatment works and industrial discharge.
Pollution from sources like storm water including oils, litter, chemicals and garden fertilisers are
washed into waterways.
Nutrients from fertilisers lead to eutrophication—the excessive growth of plants and algal blooms
in water bodies.
Thermal pollution occurs as water released from dams it can be much colder than normal leading
to a loss of biodiversity.
Water released from cooling towers is warmer than normal causing death of living things.
Turbidity, suspended solids in the water, prevent sunlight getting through and lead to a loss of
aquatic plants and other living things.
Sediment and soils from construction sites are washed into waterways. Siltation and sedimentation
can choke living things and decrease the amount of water that can be held in the channel, leading to
flooding.
Overfishing reduces fish numbers and biodiversity.
Introduced species like carp and mosquito fish compete with native fish species for food. Carp also
contribute to turbidity by making the banks very muddy by the way that they forage for food.
Salinity is caused by replacing deep-rooted trees with shallow rooted crops. Salts rise to the soil
surface where they can be washed into waterways making them salty and less suitable for drinking,
irrigation and other purposes.
Leaks from landfill sites and rubbish tips can contaminate groundwater
Sewage can overflow in high rainfall events•
Litter, animal droppings, oil from cars and other pollutants are washed into rivers as stormwater
after rainfall.These actions have led to pollution, the spread of aquatic weeds, the proliferation of
micro-organisms like guiardia, toxic algal blooms and the decline of native fish.
Issues in water management

Water quantity
◦ Droughts have reduced the flow of water and
put pressure on settlements to rethink the
amount and type of water storage in place and
to reduce water that is used and wasted.
◦ High amounts of water are used for irrigation
in Australia. This may become unsustainable
especially for rice and cotton.
◦ In cities much water is wasted each year from
burst water mains, leaking taps and old pipes.
◦ In years with lots of rainfall flash flooding
requires flood mitigation.
Activity – Develop a collage to illustrate the
two broad categories of water management
issues (water quality and quantity).
Source http://4.bp.blogspot.com/UJItQQVWaNU/TYdNTyD_OCI/AAAAAAA
AAA8/Jl_kIsmjIpg/s1600/Flood.jpg
Water supply issues – Dams or reservoirs

Water supplies are made available from the catchment and stored in large water
supply dams or reservoirs.
◦ Reservoirs regulate the release of water so activities downstream have a reliable supply for
irrigation and other farm uses.
◦ In urban areas water from water storage reservoirs is piped to suburbs for human
consumption.

People who live adjacent to larger streams may be able to pump water for
household or farm us. The amount of water and the timing of its extraction is
managed by licensing schemes to prevent too much water being removed from
stream flow so there is water left for:
◦ Other downstream
◦ The natural flow of the river or creek and
◦ The life in the stream itself e.g. fish, tadpoles, water birds, turtles and other aquatic life.

Negative effects of large water storage reservoirs:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Remove the natural flood cycle necessary for stream and estuary life processes.
Periodically release cold water flows that are harmful to downstream aquatic life.
Are a barrier to fish migration.
Prevent the completion of fish life cycles.
Considerable habitat areas of streams are lost beneath the storage lake or are unable to be
accessed from below the dam wall.
Water supply issues –
Recycling, Acquifers, Farm dams

In times of severe drought where water storage reservoirs
are low and water restrictions are operating water recycling
involving reuse of grey-water from household shower and
washing water is used.

An Aquifer is an area of underground water that collects in
reservoirs beneath the ground usually trapped by bedrock
geology. Often the size and how quickly acquifers refill is
unknown so bores tapping groundwater aquifers are licensed
to prevent excess water extraction and harmful effects on
Groundwater Dependent Ecosystems (GDE) that need this
water to survive.

Where town water supplies are unavailable or inappropriate
small storage (farm) dams are constructed to harvest runoff
from small areas of the catchment of an individual property.
Government regulation of water

The NSW Government regulates water
extraction through the Water Management
Act 2000.

This legislation aims to ensure there is
sufficient water for the environment whilst
still providing secure access to water users
Storm water

Storm water is surface runoff that follows rainfall events.

Urban areas have greater quantities because of the large areas of ‘hardstand’
surfaces including roads, footpaths, and parking areas all with hard impermeable
surfaces. Buildings such as houses, factories and other commercial structures
have rooves made of tiles or iron.
◦
also
Water rapidly collects on these surfaces unless they are designed with slope to help water runoff quickly in a desired
direction to be collected and diverted away.

Roads and paths direct water to kerbs or gutters that then collect runoff and channel it to drains.

Large pipes beneath the ground carry water to larger pipes before they enter creeks or larger streams.

Councils spend considerable time and money in their design and construction of roads and footpaths
to help storm water get away as quickly as possible.
◦
◦
This helps pedestrians and motorists to get about more safely.
However it causes rapid and high volume flows in streams straight after a rain event damaging it.

Flows from groundwater have an important role in keeping streams flowing during periods of low
rainfall.

In natural situations water soaks into the ground before there is runoff across the surface.
Sewage

“Sewage” is waste that from household activities usually inside the house. It
includes waste water from toilet, sinks, showers, basins, baths and washing.

This water is carried away as waste via a different piped (sewerage) system to a
Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) where wastes are removed and the water treated
until it is an acceptable standard to be released back into the environment.

In coastal areas, the development of sewage removal systems which deposit
effluent several kilometres offshore has been one strategy adopted in an attempt
to minimise the problem of human-induced contamination of our waterways.

The level of treatment of sewage in STPs varies depending on the STP.
◦ The best standard for aquatic health is tertiary treatment with reverse osmosis, however this
is expensive and only available at modern plants.
◦ In other locations the best option is to opt for maximum reuse of effluent to minimise
discharges into waterways or the sea via ocean outfalls.

Effluent entering waterways through inefficient STP processes or via overflows
during flood events have a negative impact on aquatic life and fisheries. There is a
high risk associated with effluent contamination especially for the oyster industry
where microbes filtered by oysters can cause result in human infections e.g. Wallis
Lake hepatitis B outbreak 1998).
Sewage internet activity

Investigate one of the following using the relevant website:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦

Sewage sludge and its use as a fertiliser,
STP treatment processes of sewage,
Composting toilets,
Other rural effluent treatment methods,
Issues of ocean outfalls in urban areas
Use the following websites:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/water/sewagetreatment.htm
http://earthsci.org/education/teacher/basicgeol/sewage/sewage.html
http://www.sydneywater.com.au/OurSystemsandOperations/
http://www.sydneywater.com.au/OurSystemsandOperations/WastewaterTreatmentLevels/
http://www.sydneywater.com.au/OurSystemsandOperations/WastewaterTreatmentPlants/
http://www.sydneywater.com.au/Publications/FactSheets/SWAssetsSTPs.pdf#Page=1
http://www.stormwater.asn.au/storm.asp
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/stormwater/hsieteachguide/index.htm
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/stormwater/hsieteachguide/strmwtrandsewage.htm
http://www.publish.csiro.au/samples/UrbanStorm.pdf
http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/resources/scwsud.pdf
http://www.environment.gov.au/coasts/pollution/usi/
Source http://i.treehugger.com/images/200
7/5/24/sewage.jpg
Pollution

Runoff from fertilisers used for
agricultural purposes, along with sewage
effluent and chemical pollutants from
domestic and industrial areas, severely
pollutes the water we depend on for
survival.

Pollution leads to the formation of toxic
algal blooms (large populations of bluegreen algae) in our river systems and
wetlands. This problem occurs when algae
use contaminated runoffs as a nutrient,
which help them flourish.

When the algae spread they can become
toxic to humans, plants and animals.
Australia was notorious for recording the
world's largest algal bloom in the early
1990s. It stretched for 1000 km across
the Barwon and Darling Rivers in NSW.
Source http://green.kingcounty.gov/lakes/img/bluegreen-algae.JPG
Floodplains

Floodplains are the part of the
catchment that experience
overland flow when stream
beds are unable to carry large
amounts of water that falls
during heavy storms or
prolonged rain.

Floodplains are some of the
most fertile and productive,
most easily developed land and
often very desirable places to
live.

Problems can result for the
catchment and the people
working or living on a
floodplain.
Source
http://1.bp.blogspot.com/_bswadbhileE/S_aCKq62
1tI/AAAAAAAAAB8/lac4TtHvQNA/s1600/floodpl
ain.jpg
Flood mitigation

People have designed structures to:
◦ Retard or restrict flow,
◦ Increase the stream beds capacity to hold water or
◦ Act as safety valves that allow floodwaters to get away more quickly after flooding.

Structures have negative effects on the aquatic environment through:
◦ Elimination of natural flooding cycles that inundate wetlands and create seasonal
breeding habitat,
◦ Provide silt deposits that enrich natural systems and interfere with lifecycles and
migratory patterns of marine and estuary life.

Dams and weirs have been built on a number of NSW coastal rivers to
limit saline intrusion. The negative effects are:
◦ They may be barriers to organisms which require freshwater for part of their life
cycle.

NSW Department of Primary Industries has been at the forefront of
improving the management of over 1000 floodgates in coastal NSW to
reverse past damage. Over 70 floodgates are now being actively managed,
restoring important habitats to estuarine fish.
Levees

Levees are natural high points created by a
stream depositing materials that help contain the
stream to a channel at ties of higher flow.

They can be modified or created by people to
change flood patterns on a floodplain.

Built levees are walls made out of earth, concrete
or rock that act as the last line of defence to
protect towns and land with important assets.
They usually only:
◦ Protect property against small floods,
◦ Divert flood waters or
◦ Provide more time for people to prepare before
flooding of property occurs.

Source
http://crooksandliars.com/files/up
loads/2008/06/illinois-levees.jpg
Constructed levees often alter natural flooding
cycles and inundation of some wetland which
stops natural ecological cycles and may impact on
stream and estuary life.
Why floodgates are built

Floodgates are placed in streams to restrict or divert flows.

They can be opened to allow increased flows to enter gated parts
of a stream or closed to prevent water from entering.

Floodgates may be designed to operate as a safety valve and allow
flood water to escape more readily.

They can interfere with:
◦ Natural tidal flows.
◦ Affect life in streams.
◦ Affect natural processes of mangroves, salt marsh and wetlands that
function as nursery areas by preventing fish access to the area to feed
and breed.
Activity - Case Study: Land and Water
◦ Natural fish migrations.
Management Issues in the Lower
Shoalhaven River Catchment. Use PDF
and worksheet to complete.
Importance of dams and weirs
Source
http://www.smh.com.au/ffximage/
2008/02/09/warragamba_dam_na
rrowweb__300x450,0.jpg

Dams are constructed to take advantage of geography like
where a stream flows through a narrow gap in high mountains.
The water stored can be used in dry periods when rain dos
not arrive for:




Drinking or irrigation or
Prevent upstream inflow of salt water from the sea and
To reduce the devastating effect of downstream flooding by holding back some
water and regulating its release.
The construction of dams (such as Warragamba Dam in
Sydney, which holds approximately two million mega litres of
water and Tomson Dam in Melbourne, which holds about half
of this) disrupts the natural properties of water.
◦ It disrupts the flow of water through our river systems and results in a
loss of forests and wildlife in surrounding areas.
◦ This in turn reduces the biodiversity (range of plant and animal life) of
waterways.
◦ An alternative to the construction of large dams are smaller hydroelectric plants, which have less impact on the environment. They can
also be used to generate hydroelectric power, a renewable source of
energy, which can replace damaging greenhouse gas-emitting sources
driven by fossil fuels.

Weirs are often placed near the boundary where salt water and freshwater
in streams mix. They:


Prevent upstream inflow of salt water from the sea and
Create a local captured body for local irrigation and water use that is reliably
Concerns and
management of weirs

Negative features are:
Removing benefits of flooding:


A flood signals the time for prawns to move into the estuary and marine waters to breed.

Pools left after floodwaters recede are used by aquatic insects and frogs and then provide food for water birds.

The rich sediments deposited by floodwaters nourish the soils of floodplain.

Many plants are dependent on the periodic inundation to survive and successfully propagate.

Pollution builds up in rivers to the level where poor water quality can occur.

The flushing action of floods lowers salinity levels within the upper flood plain.

Today many weirs are being replaced or removed altogether because of the effect they have on natural
migrations of aquatic animals eg fish, turtles and the platypus.

The NSW DPI has a policy to have fish passage structures incorporated into any new or altered in-stream
dam or weir.

Changing the natural flow of rivers and streams is listed as a key threatening process under:

The Fisheries Management Act 1994 and

The Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995.

The barrier created by dams and weirs can result in nutrient build up in the stagnant water that
accumulates upstream of the barrier resulting in weed and algal ‘blooms’ of growth.
Activity - Read the article ‘Perspectives on Damming the Clarence River’.
Develop a mind map in free minder or word to show the perceptions of different groups on the issue.
Other mitigation works

People have attempted to widen, straighten and line
some creek beds with concrete to help get flood
waters away from areas as quickly as possible. This has
major environmental consequences made worse by
the fact:
◦ Vegetation is removed.
◦ Natural stream bed functions are removed.
◦ The filtering effect of adjacent wetlands is removed.

The Cooks River, Muddy Creek and Alexandra
Channel that have concrete
lined channels have the
reputation of the worst
measures of environmental
health in
NSW.
Australian Government

The 'National Water Initiative' is the federal government's framework for water reform on a country-wide scale. It was
implemented in 2004 and represents an integrated approach because it has been signed by all governments of all
Australia's States and Territories. Cooperation between State and Territory jurisdictions is essential in Australia because
many of our water sources stretch across borders, meaning that use of water in one area can have very negative
consequences in another. The principal aim of the National Water Initiative is to have different jurisdictions working
collaboratively to improve Australia's current systems for water use. This will help to ensure that Australia's river water
and groundwater sources are healthy and that our use of them is equitable and sustainable.

The Australian Government has embarked upon several initiatives/programs to address land and water issues in coastal
environments. Some of these include:
◦
Australia’s National Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based Activities
◦
Coastal Catchments Initiative.
◦
National Strategy for the Management of Coastal Acid Sulfate Soils.
◦
National Cooperative Approach to Integrated Coastal Zone Management – Framework and Implementation Plan.
“Caring For Country” is a new initiative which will address Natural Resource Management issues across Australia.
It will combine some of the Australian Government’s existing programs and initiatives such as:
 Natural Heritage Trust (funded groups and organisations to protect and restore the environment and natural
resources);
 National Action Plan for Salinity and Water Quality;
 National Landcare Program (encouraged farmers to adopt sustainable management practices, and improve their
productivity, profitability and the condition of our natural resources, both on and off farms);
 Environmental Stewardship Program;
 Working on Country Indigenous Land and Environmental Program.
◦
The Australian Government has several Agencies that have been established to address and manage land and water
issues. These include:
 The Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry ;
 The Department of Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts ;
 The Department of Innovation, Industry, Science and Research ; and
 The Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism
State Government

Thirteen Catchment Management Authorities (CMAs) have been established across the State by
the New South Wales Government to ensure communities have a say in how natural resources
are managed in their catchments.
◦
◦
◦

The NSW Government established a number of Departments to address land and water issues
including:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦

They protect catchments and supply bulk water to its customers including Sydney Water.
They are responsible for involving communities in the management of the natural resource issues facing their
region, and are the primary means of issuing funding from the NSW and Commonwealth Governments to
help land managers improve and restore natural resources.
The CMAs work in partnership with the community, local government, State Government agencies, industry,
business and individuals.
NSW Department of Primary Industries
Department of Water and Energy (DWE)
NSW Department of Environment and Climate Change
NSW Department of Planning and
NSW Maritime
Sydney water provides Sydney’s drinking water as well as looking after recycled water and wastewater services. The authority is responsible for the health and cleanliness of drinking water in
Sydney.
The NSW Government has funded a Urban Storm water Program and Beach watch Program
run by DECC.This program focused on:
- Raising awareness about the potential for storm water to cause pollution and
- Ways that people could help reduce this.
Local Government

Local governments play a vital part in catchment management
through catchment planning schemes.

Local government authorities manage and regulate many of the
activities which impact on catchment condition. These
management activities include:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Land-use zoning;
Storm water management and sewerage and drainage provision;
Regulation of development including the clearing of land;
Erosion and sediment management;
Development Control Plans requiring water sensitive urban design;
Waste disposal regulations and facilities; and
Involvement with other organisations and landholders in specific land
and water rehabilitation projects e.g. Clarence Floodplain project.
◦ Increasing the use of domestic rainwater.
Groups and individuals

Individuals and groups can all contribute to the sustainable use of land
and water resources in catchments. They can do this by:
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
◦
Minimising their impact through waste minimisation and careful waste disposal;
Carrying out remedial works on affected land and water;
Sustainable use of resources;
Volunteering for rehabilitation projects;
Supporting government and group initiatives to improve land and water resources;
Complying with the law; and
Students, farmers, townspeople, business owners all have a role to play as individuals.
Stream watch is a long running water monitoring program run in partnership by
Sydney Water and the Sydney Catchment Authority (SCA). It supports local
communities and schools across Sydney, the Blue Mountains, Illawarra and Southern
Highland regions. Stream watch groups investigate and take action on water quality
and catchment and ecosystem health. It aims to raise awareness of the environment
in schools and the community through testing water quality in local rivers and
streams.
◦ Increasing the use of domestic rainwater tanks.

Non government organisations also play an important role in
coordinating groups to work together to improve the sustainable use of
land and water in catchments.
◦ For example, Ocean Watch Australia’s “Tide to Table” program involved working with
community groups, Local Government, Catchment Management Authorities and
other land managers on a number of on-ground projects to repair and restore fish
habitat and address water quality across coastal catchments.
Individuals

DECC’s Initiative “It’s a Living Thing” suggests many ways individuals can help
reduce your impact on water quality and water quantity.
1.
Installing AAA-rated showerheads – you save10 litres of water a minute;
2.
Installing water saving devices like dual-flush toilets, tap aerators and other flow
regulators in your taps and showerheads;
1.
Choosing appliances and white goods with a high water saving rating;
1.
Activity Conduct a water audit
Turning off the tap while cleaning your teeth – you save 5 litres of water every
on your household to
time;
estimate how much
water it uses.
a) Calculate your
Keeping pipes and taps in good order – fix leaks and dripping taps promptly;
daily, monthly and
yearly water use.
Turning on your washing machine and dishwasher only when you have a full load; b) Calculate the cost
of the water.
c)
Design and
Reusing water from your bath, shower and laundry to water your garden;
implement a plan
in which your
Using a broom to clear and clean hard surfaces;
household
attempts to
reduce the
Reducing the use of household chemicals by buying less, using less and looking for
amount of water
safer alternatives;
used. Evaluate the
success of your
Using water-based paints–only buy enough for the job at hand to avoid
plan.
1.
Using non toxic ways to repel pests; and
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
unnecessary wastage;
Responsibilities of different levels of
government

2010 School Certificate Question (5 marks)
A recent report by the government points to a negative future
for the Australian environment. The report identified the
following issues:
• air quality
• coastal management
• land and water management
• spatial inequality
• urban growth and decline
• waste management.
 Describe the responsibilities of different levels of government towards
ONE of the issues.
 Chosen Issue – Land and water management

Marking Guidelines to obtain 5 marks
◦ Provides characteristics and features of the responsibilities of different levels of government towards the
issue.
◦ Provides relevant detail using appropriate geographical terminology
Water management – internet activity

Investigate – drought effects on the reliability of water supply and the
alternatives that have been promoted eg desalination plants, stormwater
harvesting and water recycling schemes.

What are some of the simple things that individuals can do to save water?
Map and identify the location of the main water supply dams in NSW.
Where does the water used in your house come from?
An example of a GDE?
Why are environmental flows important?
How are people’s attitudes changing towards using recycling water?










Use the following websites
http://www.onkaparinga.net/about/aquifers.shtml
http://www.watercorporation.com.au/W/water_recycling.cfm
http://www.sydneywater.com.au/EnsuringtheFuture/Desalination/
http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2006/publications/emerging/desal/
Ecological and sustainable practices

Ecological – ecology is the sum total of all the life processes of all the living things in an
area and how they interact with each other and their non living environment at a location.

Sustainable – something is considered sustainable if it can continue to happen indefinitely
or forever. A resource is sustainable if that resource is being replaced or redeveloping at
the same pace at which it is being used.
◦
An example in forestry is where new trees are being grown whilst other older trees are being
harvested.

When we carry out an activity that affects the ecology of an area it is sustainable if its
impact does not seriously prevent the ecological system from operating into the future.

School Certificate 2010
Which of the following is an example of an action
promotes ecological sustainability?
A.
B.
C.
D.
Introducing exotic species to an area
Applying selective logging within forests
Encouraging firms to move goods by road
Maintaining extensive irrigation to farm land
Activity – Using PDF “Sustainable Catchments” complete the
worksheet questions on ecological and sustainable practices.
Source Sue van Zuylen, Glyn Trethewy, Helen
McIsaac
Geography Focus 2 Page 179
that