Prologue to Chapter 7: Memory
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Occasionally, some individuals can perform feats
of memory that seem astounding to us
Memory is a cognitive tool and a tool most
people are not taught how to use effectively
Psychologists are interested in how memory
works and how it can be improved
We will look at some theories of memory in this
chapter
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3 Stages of memory: an
information processing view
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The “information processing” view of
memory posits three stages of memory
The stages are:
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the sensory register
short-term memory
long-term memory
This theory was proposed by Atkinson and
Shiffrin as a model of memory
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Stage 1: the sensory register
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First stage of memory
Briefly holds an exact image of each sensory
experience until it can be processed
iconic memory, audiotic memory, kinesthetic
memory
information remains here for a very brief time,
e.g., on the order of about a few seconds or less
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Stage 2: Short-term Memory
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Stage 2: the short-term memory
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The second stage of memory
STM will hold about 5 to 9 bits of
information (averaging around the magic
number 7)
Objective in STM is to encode SR
information into a form suitable for storage
in LTM
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Stage 2: the short-term memory
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Data remains in STM for about 30 seconds
unless it is refreshed
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rehearsal is one way to refresh information in
STM
getting a phone number from a directory
assistance operator is an example of use of
STM and rehearsal
rehearsal is also a way to encode information
for storage in LTM (though a crude method)
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Stage 2: the short-term memory
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Chunking in STM: overcoming STM’s 5-9
bit limited desktop capacity
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remembering data with more than around 9
bits of information is difficult
STM desktop capacity can be extended by
using “chunking” where bits are collapsed
into packets of information
packet formation is the key to effective
chunking techniques in STM useage
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Stage 2: STM
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Examples of chunking
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here is a series of numbers: 3504694067970098
chunked: 350 46 9406 797 0098
we’ve reduced 16 bits down to 5 bits with each bit of
information containing more information
what is your driver’s license number?
effective use of chunking can increase your memory
ability by at least 200%
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Stage 2: STM
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Encoding: Preparing information for
effective storage in LTM
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there are many encoding strategies; some
work better than others
mneumonics
can you name the Great Lakes?
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HOMES
can you name the 9 planets in correct order?
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MVEM J. SUNP
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Stage 3: Long-term
Memory
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Stage 3: Long-term memory
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The 3rd stage of memory
Information stored here will remain for a
relatively indefinite time
Types of LTM
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Procedural LTM: skills memory
Episodic LTM: memory of a specific episode in your
life
Semantic LTM: memory for specific meaning of
words, symbols, other information
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Stage 3: LTM
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Procedural LTM
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How do you tie your shoe, play the piano,
play a trombone? How do you do long
division?
Episodic LTM
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Where were you when the SST-51
“Challenger” space shuttle exploded?
Where were you (if you were) when John F.
Kennedy was shot?
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Episodic Memory
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Episodic Memory
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Stage 3: LTM
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Semantic LTM
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What does the word “arbitrary” mean?
How do you use the “Periodic Table” to
determine the number of electrons in the
shells of a particular matter’s atom?
In the book, Moby Dick, what is the meaning
of the relationship of Captain Ahab and the
white whale?
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Stage 3: LTM
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Organization of LTM
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Organization in LTM helps to facilitate
retrieval of information from the LTM
Storing an “address” with the item to be
remembered helps in its later recall
Cognitively mapping information into
meaningful “trees”
Adjoining one memory onto another one,
e.g., the depth of Crater Lake
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Stage 3: LTM
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Retrieval of LTM memories
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3 ways of testing LTM
recognition memory
 recall memory
 relearning speed
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Recognition: the multiple choice examination
Recall: the essay examination
Relearning speed: how fast can your learn
this?
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Recognition: Have you seen this picture before?
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Stage 3: LTM
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Serial learning and LTM
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Observations from research into the learning
of lists
The “Serial Position Effect” reveals that memory
for the first and last items in a long list is easier
than for items in the middle of the list
 The “Von Resteroff Effect” is useful for increasing
the probability of remembering items in the
middle of a long list
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Stage 3: LTM
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The “tip of the tongue” phenomenon
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when you know you know something but
cannot immediately recall it
the phenomenon suggests a retrieval problem
in LTM
the information is there but you cannot access
it as you have lost the address to it
improve LTM by being sure to encode
addressing information in stored material
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An alternative theory of memory: the
“Levels of Processing” theory
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“Levels of Processing” theory
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Model suggests that the difference between STM
and LTM is a matter of processing rather than
actually different stages of memory
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model suggests memory is based on the cognitive
processing of information rather than on specific
skills in each stage of memory
model seems to suggest memory limited by one’s
ability to process information; less “hopeful” theory
than Atkinson/Shiffrin view
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Forgetting and why it occurs?
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Biological basis for memory
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An “engram” is the as-yet-unidentified
physical change that takes place in the
nervous system when something is learned
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similar to the bit-level changes that happen on
a magnetic storage disk for computers
an engram could be considered to be a bitlevel change in the nervous system of an
individual after learning has occurred
the search is on for the “engram”
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Biological basis for memory
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Synaptic theories of memory: where is the
engram?
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Donald O. Hebb theorized that there were
physical changes at the synapses when
learning occurred
recent research tends to support Hebb’s theory that
there are, indeed, physical changes at the synapses
 data suggests that biochemistry is important in
memory and this has many implications
 memories by pill in the future?
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Memory: Changes at the synapse?
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Disorders of memory
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Amnesia: Disorders in memory
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There are 2 types of amnesia
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Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
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an inability to store and/or retrieve new
information in the LTM
person cannot remember anything newly
acquired for more than seconds
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Amnesia: Disorders in memory
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Causes of anterograde amnesia
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brain surgery, brain trama
brain tumors, lack of oxygen (anoxia) to the
brain
stroke, senility
severe nutritional deficiences
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Amnesia: Disorders in memory
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Retrograde amnesia
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an inability to retrieve old LTM data
person can remember new things but not old
causes of retrograde amnesia may include:
severe psychological trama
 severe brain trama
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often associated with a psychiatric disorder
called “fugue”
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Enhancing memory?
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Enhancing memory?
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Do “smart drugs” really work?
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drugs designed to enhance memory are highly
controversial and should be viewed with caution
memory enhancers must work at the level of the
synapses to be effective, e.g., neural transmitters
drug-assisted memories can only usually be recalled
successfully if subject is in the drugged state
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Enhancing memory?
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Stimulants and memory: should I use
stimulants to keep me hyped-up for
studying for exams?
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memory is state-dependent
you must be in the same state to most
effectively recall something that you were in
when you learned it
if you are coffee-buzzed learning, then you
should be coffee-buzzed testing
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Application of Psychology
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Application of psychology
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How valid is eyewitness testimony and their
memory?
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research by Loftus reveals that eye-witness memories
can be faulty
the influence of perception on recall of events is
substantial
eye-witnesses may not be lying but may be
remembering false data
implications for lawyers, clients, and witnesses
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How good is your memory?
Be prepared to describe the following
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What did you see?
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What was occurring?
What color was the floor?
Was there a spoon in the picture?
What color was the handle on the grinder?
How many eyes were in the picture?
Was there any food in the picture?
How was your memory?
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Questions?
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Any questions over chapter 7?
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Test #2 coming up!
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Our next test, Test #2, will be over chapters 5, 6,
and 7.
Have your studyguides done and checked before
test day if you desire any extra credit
If you didn’t do well on the first test, then make
sure to read the textbook at least twice; study
your notes carefully; use the studyguide.
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