IP Addressing and CIDR High Performance Switching and Routing Telecom Center Workshop: Sept 4, 1997. COMP680E by M. Hamdi 1 IP Addresses 32 bits version (4 bits) header length Type of Service/TOS (8 bits) flags (3 bits) Identification (16 bits) TTL Time-to-Live (8 bits) Total Length (in bytes) (16 bits) Protocol (8 bits) Fragment Offset (13 bits) Header Checksum (16 bits) Source IP address (32 bits) Destination IP address (32 bits) Ethernet Header IP Header TCP Header Application data Ethernet Trailer Ethernet frame COMP680E by M. Hamdi 2 What is an IP Address? • An IP address is a unique global address for a network interface • Exceptions: – Dynamically assigned IP addresses ( DHCP) – IP addresses in private networks ( NAT) • An IP address: - is a 32 bit long identifier - encodes a network number (network prefix) and a host number COMP680E by M. Hamdi 3 IP Addresses come in two parts 11111111 00010001 10000111 00000000 Network Number Host Number Where is this dividing line? Well, that depends .... COMP680E by M. Hamdi 4 IP Forwarding Table Destination Net A Net B Net C, Host 3 Net C A destination is usually a network. May also be a host, or a “gateway of last resort” (default) Next Hop Router 1 Direct Router 2 Router 1 The next hop is either a directly connected network or a router on a directly connected network COMP680E by M. Hamdi Interface INT 7 INT 4 INT 3 INT 7 A physical interface 5 IP Forwarding Process 1. Remove a packet from an input queue 2. Check for correctness decrement TTL field 4. Place packet on correct output queue Forwarding Process If queues get full, just drop packets! 3. Match packet’s destination to a table entry If queues get full, just drop packets! IP Forwarding Table Router COMP680E by M. Hamdi 6 Architecture of Routing Protocols Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP) : inside autonomous systems OSPF, IS-IS, RIP, EIGRP, ... Metric Based AS 701 Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP) : between autonomous systems BGP UUNet IGP Policy Based A technique used to make routing decisions based on policies set by the network administrator. Based on the size of the packet, the protocol of the payload, or some other characteristic. IGP IGP EGP Sprint AS 6431 AT&T Common Backbone AS 7018 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 7 Basic Architectural Components of an IP Router Routing Protocols Routing Table Control Plane Forwarding Switching Table COMP680E by M. Hamdi Datapath per-packet processing 8 Two components of routing • Control component – Decides where the packets will go – Use a set of routing protocols (e.g. OSPF, BGP) to collect information and produce a “forwarding table” – “Control plane” routes Routing “daemon” collect routing info and maintain routing DB kernel Forwarding table • Forwarding component – Moving packets from input to output ports according to forwarding table and packet header – “Forwarding plane” packets Forwarding COMP680E by M. Hamdi algorithm and mechanism 9 IP Addresses come in two parts 11111111 00010001 10000111 00000000 Network Number Host Number Where is this dividing line? Well, that depends .... COMP680E by M. Hamdi 10 Classful Addresses Class A 0nnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh Class B 10nnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh hhhhhhhh Class C 110nnnnn nnnnnnnn nnnnnnnn hhhhhhhh n = network address bit COMP680E by M. Hamdi h = host identifier bit 11 The Classful Address Space Class Networks Hosts Share of IP address space 16,777,214 1/2 A 127 B C 16,384 65,534 2,097,152 254 1/4 1/8 Leads to very inefficient allocation of addresses … COMP680E by M. Hamdi 12 Problems with Classful IP Addresses • By the early 1990s, the original classfull address scheme had a number of problems – Flat address space. Routing tables on the backbone Internet need to have an entry for each network address. By the 1993, the size of the routing tables started to outgrow the capacity of routers (C networks). Other problems: – Too few network addresses for large networks • Class A and Class B addresses were gone – Limited flexibility for network addresses: • Class A and B addresses are overkill (>64,000 addresses) • Class C address is insufficient (requires 40 Class C addresses) COMP680E by M. Hamdi 13 Allocation of Classful Addresses COMP680E by M. Hamdi 14 Flat Network Addressing P Y T W X S Exports at least 12 network addresses This router needs at least 12 table entries R N V Q U Z COMP680E by M. Hamdi 15 Limitations of Classful IP Addressing Wastes Adds Multiple IP Addresses Entries to Routing Tables Class C B Network Network ID ID 255 w 255 x Company Network IDs 192.168.1.0 255 0 y Host IDHost ID 0 z Internet 192.168.2.0 192.168.3.0 Network of 2000 Computers Assigned 192.168.4.065,534 IP Addresses 192.168.5.0 192.168.6.0 192.168.7.0 192.168.8.0 63,534 Wasted Portion of Internet Routing Tables 192.168.1.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.2.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.3.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.4.0 2000255.255.255.0 192.168.5.0 255.255.255.0 Allocated 192.168.6.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.7.0 255.255.255.0 192.168.8.0 255.255.255.0 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 192.168.1.1 192.168.2.1 192.168.3.1 192.168.4.1 192.168.5.1 192.168.6.1 192.168.7.1 192.168.8.1 16 Subnets • The idea is to share the same IP network number among multiple subnets • Subnets of a network should reside in the same general locale (e.g., college campus, corporate location, …) • Routers on an IP network know their local subnets • Remote routers need to know only the network address COMP680E by M. Hamdi 17 Subnetting • Problem: Organizations have multiple networks which are independently managed – Solution 1: Allocate a separate network address for each network University Network Engineering School • Difficult to manage • From the outside of the organization, each network must be addressable. – Solution 2: Add another level of hierarchy to the IP addressing structure COMP680E by M. Hamdi Medical School Library Subnetting 18 Address assignment with subnetting • Each part of the organization is allocated a range of IP addresses (subnets or subnetworks) • Addresses in each subnet can be administered locally 128.143.0.0/16 University Network 128.143.71.0/24 128.143.136.0/24 Engineering School Medical School 128.143.56.0/24 Library 128.143.121.0/24 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 19 Basic Idea of Subnetting • Split the host number portion of an IP address into a subnet number and a (smaller) host number. • Result is a 3-layer hierarchy network prefix network prefix host number subnet number host number • Then: extended network prefix • Subnets can be freely assigned within the organization • Internally, subnets are treated as separate networks • Subnet structure is not visible outside the organization COMP680E by M. Hamdi 20 Subnetmask • Routers and hosts use an extended network prefix (subnetmask) to identify the start of the host numbers 128.143 137.144 network prefix host number 128.143 137 144 network prefix subnet number host number extended network prefix 1111111111111111 1111111100000000 subnetmask COMP680E by M. Hamdi 21 Advantages of Subnetting • With subnetting, IP addresses use a 3-layer hierarchy: » Network » Subnet » Host • Reduces router complexity. Since external routers do not know about subnetting, the complexity of routing tables at external routers is reduced. • Note: Length of the subnet mask need not be identical at all subnetworks. COMP680E by M. Hamdi 22 Example: Subnetmask • 128.143.0.0/16 is the IP address of the network • 128.143.137.0/24 is the IP address of the subnet • 128.143.137.144 is the IP address of the host • 255.255.255.0 (or ff-ff-ff-00) is the subnet mask of the host • Use of subnetting or length of the subnet mask is decided by the network administrator • Consistency of subnet masks is the responsibility of administrator COMP680E by M. Hamdi 23 No Subnetting • All hosts think that the other hosts are on the same network 128.143.137.32/16 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 128.143.137.144/16 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 128.143.71.21/16 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 128.143.71.201/16 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 128.143.70.0/16 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 24 With Subnetting • Hosts with same extended network prefix belong to the same network 128.143.137.32/24 128.143.137.144/24 128.143.71.21/24 128.143.71.201/24 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 128.143.137.0/24 Subnet 128.143.71.0/24 Subnet 128.143.0.0/16 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 25 Variable Length Subnet Masks • With only a single subnet mask across a network prefix, an organization was locked into a fixed number of fixed size subnets • When a network is assigned more than one subnet mask, it is considered a network with “variable length subnet masks” since extended-networkprefixes have different lengths • VLSM permits slicing and dicing subnets into different sizes and therefore numbers of hosts in subnets under a single Network ID, thereby minimizing, if not eliminating, wasted addresses. COMP680E by M. Hamdi 26 With Subnetting • Different subnetmasks lead to different views of the size of the scope of the network 128.143.137.32/26 128.143.137.144/26 subnetmask: 255.255.255.192 subnetmask: 255.255.255.192 128.143.137.0/26 Subnet 128.143.71.21/24 128.143.71.201/16 subnetmask: 255.255.255.0 subnetmask: 255.255.0.0 128.143.137.128/26 Subnet 128.143.71.0/24 Subnet 128.143.0.0/16 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 27 Mask may vary with location 12.0.0.0/16 12.1.0.0/16 12.2.0.0/16 12.3.0.0/16 12.0.0.0/8 This allows all of these (sub)networks to be aggregated into one entry in an IP forwarding table : : : 12.253.0.0/16 12.254.0.0/16 12.3.0.0/24 12.3.1.0/24 : : : : : 12.3.254.0/24 12.253.0.0/19 12.253.32.0/19 12.253.64.0/19 12.253.96.0/19 12.253.128.0/19 12.253.160.0/19 12.253.192.0/19 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 28 Hierarchical Network Addressing (Subnetting and Supernetting) Network Z-T M Q Z M K Network Z T P This is called Aggregation W S This Router needs only 3 table entries for networks Z-T, Z-S, and Z-U P F J Exports only one Address W U S X Network Z-U-X COMP680E by M. Hamdi 29 Optimizing the Allocation of IP Addresses After Subnetting Before After Supernetting: Supernetting: 220.78.168.0 220.78.168.64 220.78.168.128 220.78.168.0 220.78.168.192 220.78.169.0 220.78.169.0 220.78.170.0 220.78.169.64 220.78.171.0 220.78.168.0 220.78.169.128 220.78.172.0 220.78.169.192 220.78.173.0 220.78.170.0 Router A Router RouteA rA Routing RoutingTable TableforforRouter RouterB B 220.78.168.0 220.78.168.0 220.78.169.0 220.78.170.0 220.78.171.0 220.78.172.0 220.78.173.0 220.78.174.0 220.78.175.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 220.78.168.1 Router B Router B 220.78.174.0 220.78.170.64 220.78.175.0 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 30 CIDR - Classless Interdomain Routing • IP backbone routers have one routing table entry for each network address: – With subnetting, a backbone router only needs to know one entry for each Class A, B, or C networks – This is acceptable for Class A and Class B networks • 27 = 128 Class A networks • 214 = 16,384 Class B networks – But this is not acceptable for Class C networks • 221 = 2,097,152 Class C networks • In 1993, the size of the routing tables started to outgrow the capacity of routers • Consequence: The Class-based assignment of IP addresses had to be abandoned COMP680E by M. Hamdi 31 CIDR - Classless Interdomain Routing • Goals: – New interpretation of the IP address space – Restructure IP address assignments to increase efficiency – Permits route aggregation to minimize route table entries • CIDR (Classless Interdomain routing) – abandons the notion of classes – Key Concept: The length of the network prefix in the IP addresses is kept arbitrary – Consequence: Size of the network prefix must be provided with an IP address COMP680E by M. Hamdi 32 CIDR Notation • CIDR notation of an IP address: 192.0.2.0/18 • "18" is the prefix length. It states that the first 18 bits are the network prefix of the address (and 14 bits are available for specific host addresses) • CIDR notation can replace the use of subnetmasks (but is more general) – IP address 128.143.137.144 and subnetmask 255.255.255.0 becomes 128.143.137.144/24 • CIDR notation allows to drop trailing zeros of network addresses: 192.0.2.0/18 can be written as 192.0.2/18 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 33 Why do people still talk about • CIDR eliminates the concept of class A, B, and C networks and replaces it with a network prefix • Existing classfull network addresses are converted to CIDR addresses: 128.143.0.0 128.143.0.0/16 • The change has not affected many (previously existing) enterprise networks – Many network administrators (especially on university campuses) have not noticed the change COMP680E by M. Hamdi 34 CIDR address blocks • CIDR notation can nicely express blocks of addresses • Blocks are used when allocating IP addresses for a company and for routing tables (route aggregation) CIDR Block Prefix /27 /26 /25 /24 /23 /22 /21 /20 /19 /18 /17 /16 /15 /14 /13 # of Host Addresses 32 64 128 256 512 1,024 2,048 4,096 8,192 16,384 32,768 65,536 131,072 262,144 524,288 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 35 CIDR and Address assignments • Backbone ISPs obtain large block of IP addresses space and then reallocate portions of their address blocks to their customers. Example: • Assume that an ISP owns the address block 206.0.64.0/18, which represents 16,384 (214) IP addresses • Suppose a client requires 800 host addresses • With classful addresses: need to assign a class B address (and waste ~64,700 addresses) or four individual Class Cs (and introducing 4 new routes into the global Internet routing tables) • With CIDR: Assign a /22 block, e.g., 206.0.68.0/22, and allocated a block of 1,024 (210) IP addresses. COMP680E by M. Hamdi 36 Where do IP addresses come from? IETF Delegate IANA Allocate RIR / NIR Allocate Network Assign User COMP680E by M. Hamdi 37 IPv4 Address Allocation IANA: Internet Assigned Numbers Authority ARIN: American Registry for Internet Numbers Source: iana.org Total Addresses: 4,295m. US Commercial 369m. Reserved (IANA) 1,896m. US Government 201m. ARIN (N. America) 268m. Asia/Pacific 151m. Europe 218m. International COMP680E by M. Hamdi1,191m. 38 CIDR and Routing • Aggregation of routing table entries: – 128.143.0.0/16 and 128.142.0.0/16 are represented as 128.142.0.0/15 – 1000 0000.1000 1110 (128.142 /16) and – 1000 0000.1000 1111 (128.143 /16) • Longest prefix match: Routing table lookup finds the routing entry that matches the longest prefix What is the outgoing interface for 128.143.137.0/24 ? Prefix Interface 128.0.0.0/4 interface #5 128.128.0.0/9 interface #2 Route aggregation can be exploited 128.143.128.0/17 interface #1 when IP address blocks are assigned in an hierarchical fashion Routing table COMP680E by M. Hamdi 39 CIDR and Routing Information Company X : ISP X owns: Internet Backbone 206.0.68.0/22 206.0.64.0/18 204.188.0.0/15 209.88.232.0/21 ISP y : 209.88.237.0/24 Organization z1 : Organization z2 : 209.88.237.192/26 209.88.237.0/26 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 40 CIDR and Routing Information Backbone routers do not know anything about Company X, ISP Y, or Organizations z1, z2. Company X : ISP X does not know about Organizations z1, z2. Internet ISP X sends everything which Backbone matches the prefix: 206.0.68.0/22 ISPISP y sends everything which matches X owns: the prefix: 206.0.64.0/18 209.88.237.192/26 to Organizations z1 204.188.0.0/15 209.88.237.0/26 to Organizations z2 209.88.232.0/21 ISP y : 206.0.68.0/22 to Company X, 209.88.237.0/24 to ISP y Backbone sends everything which matches the prefixes 206.0.64.0/18, 204.188.0.0/15, 209.88.232.0/21 to ISP X. 209.88.237.0/24 Organization z1 : Organization z2 : 209.88.237.192/26 209.88.237.0/26 COMP680E by M. Hamdi 41 Classless Addressing (and CIDR) • Eliminated class boundaries • Introduced the notion of a variable length prefix between 0 and 32 bits long • Prefixes represented by P/l: e.g., 122/8, 212.128/13, 34.43.32/22, 10.32.32.2/32 etc. • An l-bit prefix represents an aggregation of 232-l IP addresses COMP680E by M. Hamdi 42 IPv6 - IP Version 6 • IP Version 6 – Is the successor to the currently used IPv4 – Specification completed in 1994 – Makes improvements to IPv4 (no revolutionary changes) • One (not the only !) feature of IPv6 is a significant increase in of the IP address to 128 bits (16 bytes) • IPv6 will solve – for the foreseeable future – the problems with IP addressing • 1024 addresses per square inch on the surface of the Earth. COMP680E by M. Hamdi 43 IPv6 Header 32 bits version (4 bits) Traffic Class (8 bits) Payload Length (16 bits) Flow Label (24 bits) Next Header (8 bits) Hop Limits (8 bits) Source IP address (128 bits) Destination IP address (128 bits) Ethernet Header IPv6 Header TCP Header Application data Ethernet Trailer Ethernet frame COMP680E by M. Hamdi 44 IPv6 vs. IPv4: Address Comparison • IPv4 has a maximum of 232 4 billion addresses • IPv6 has a maximum of 2128 = (232)4 4 billion x 4 billion x 4 billion x 4 billion addresses COMP680E by M. Hamdi 45