History of Scientific Communication
History of Scientific
Communication
AGED 520V
Philosophers, Scientists, and
Their Books
History of Scientific Communication
• Socrates
– 400-300 B.C. philosopher whose interests
were law, morals, and logic
– Wrote no books; communicated through
speeches to students and colleagues
• Plato
– 400 B.C. student of Socrates
– Wrote Apology, Crito, Republic
Philosophers, Scientists, and
Their Books, cont’d
History of Scientific Communication
• Aristotle
– 400-300 B.C. student of Plato who was
most interested in finding organization and
logic in all things
– Wrote Metaphysics, Categories, Logic
Philosophers, Scientists, and
Their Books, cont’d
History of Scientific Communication
• Nicholas Copernicus
– 16th-17th Century Polish astronomer who
explained that the Earth was not at the center of
the universe
– Wrote De revolutionibus orbium coelestium
• Francis Bacon
– 16th-17th Century English philosopher and natural
scientist who introduced the inductive method
– Wrote Novum organum and The New Atlantis
Philosophers, Scientists, and
Their Books, cont’d
History of Scientific Communication
• Galileo Galilei
– 16th-17th Century Italian astronomer who designed the
scientific method, perfected the telescope and described
outer space to the world
– Wrote Discourses and Mathematical demonstrations
concerning the two new sciences
• René Descarte
– 16th-17th Century French philosopher who focused on
questions of being (I think; therefore, I am).
– Wrote Principia Philosophiae and La Geometrie
Philosophers, Scientists, and
Their Books, cont’d
History of Scientific Communication
• Isaac Newton
– 17th Century English physicist and philosopher who
explained properties of light and color and principles of
gravity to the scientific world
– Wrote Optiks
• Benjamin Franklin
– 18th Century farmer, philosopher, inventor, and politician
who invented bifocals, lightning rods, and the Franklin stove
– Wrote Poor Richard’s Almanac
Philosophers, Scientists, and
Their Books, cont’d
History of Scientific Communication
• Charles Darwin
– 19th Century English naturalist who explained the theories of
evolution and natural selection.
– Wrote The Origin of the Species
• Albert Einstein
– 20th Century German-American physicist who changed science
with his theories on time, space, and matter
– Wrote Relativity
• Steven Hawking
– 20th-21st Century physicist who first described black holes and
who furthered Einstein’s explanation of time, space, and matter
– Wrote A Brief History of Time
History of Scientific Communication
Letters as Intellectual Media
• From the early philosophers, through the Dark Ages,
and into the present, letters have remained an
important medium
• Early letters were disseminated through an informal
network of scholars
• Much like Paul’s letters to his fellow Christians in the
New Testament
• E-mail is a result of scientists’ desires to
communicate by letter with each other
• The most highly esteemed journals, like Science and
Nature, still print letters and essays from esteemed
scholars
History of Scientific Communication
The Royal Society of London
• Begun by a group of 12 scientists who
met weekly to discuss their (and others’)
work
• Became the first professional society
and began electing Fellows
• Launched the first scientific journal,
Philosophical Transactions
Mathematical Plainness
History of Scientific Communication
• Members sought to…
…reject “amplifications, digressions, and swellings of
style…bringing all things as near the Mathematical
plainness, as they can: and preferring the language
of Artizans, Countrymen, and Merchants, before that
of Wits and Scholars.”
• The flowery prose of academic writing
was difficult to avoid, but Mathematical
Plainness remained the emphasis (see
example)
Mathematical Plainness,
cont’d
History of Scientific Communication
• Metaphors and anthromorphism were
overused and problematic:
In the middle of July, I drew and gathered of the Milk of Lactuca
syl. Costa spinosa, C.B. and of all our English Plants, that I have
met with, this most freely and plentifully affords it. It springs out
of the Wound thick as Cream and Ropes, and is White, and yet
the Milk which came out of the Wounds, made towards the top
of the Plant, was plainly streaked or mixt with a purple Juice, as
though one had dashed or sprinkled Cream with a few drops of
Claret. And indeed, the Skin of the Plant thereabouts was
purplish also, perhaps with Veins. Again, in the Shell I drew it, it
turned still yellower and thicker, and by and by curdled, that is,
the white and thick caseous part did separate from a thin purple
Whey.
--Martin Lister, entomologist, Philosophical Transactions
History of Scientific Communication
Other European Societies and
Journals
• Acadamie Royale (Journal des
scavans), France
• Accademia del Cimento (Saggi di
naturali esperienzi), Italy
• Acta eruditorum and Miscellaneau
curiosa medico-physica, German
journals (published in Latin)
History of Scientific Communication
American Philosophical
Society
• The first American “learned society”
• Founded by Ben Franklin et al. in 1743
• Published Transactions (America’s first
professional journal, still in print)
• Notable Members:
George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, John
Adams, John Marshall, Charles Darwin, Louis
Pasteur, Margaret Meade, Thomas Edison
Professional Journals
History of Scientific Communication
• Progression of journals
– General scientific journal
– Specialty journal
– Single-subject journal
– Interdisciplinary journal
Professional Journals, cont’d
• Types of articles
History of Scientific Communication
– Theoretical
• Explain natural events and suggest directions for further
research; offer new conceptual variations that drive
scientific progress
– Experimental
• Recount the manipulations of natural objects, usually in
labs; provide empirical information to guide further
research and practice
– Observational
• Describe natural objects or phenomena outside the lab;
Usually follow inductive logic and may lead to hypotheses
for further empirical research
Professional Journals, cont’d
• Types of articles, cont’d
History of Scientific Communication
– Methodological articles
• present new means for facilitating and creating
experiments and improving observations; they may
evaluate methods
– Review articles
• Synthesize and evaluate existing research and interpret
the body of research as a whole
• Should be peer-reviewed carefully because many will
base their future research on existing literature reviews
History of Scientific Communication
Professional Dialectic
• The ongoing professional discussion and public argument about
topics and issues in a discipline and/or profession
• Actively participating in the dialectic is a characteristic of a
successful professional
• Most dialectic occurs…
– In trade publications
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Editorials
Letters
Columns
Invited articles
– In academic journals (see list of article types on previous slide)
– At professional meetings
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Symposia
Research presentations
Poster presentations
Professional organization business meetings
History of Scientific Communication
The Purpose of This Class
• To enhance your ability to participate
effectively in the dialectic of your
discipline or profession
• To teach you how to write a scientific or
professional article that contributes to
your discipline or profession