AMERICAN
FREEDOM AT
HOME AND
ABROAD
CHAPTER 17
HOMESTEAD STRIKE
• 1892 Homestead PA Carnegie Steel Plant.
• Frick/Carnegie want to break a union- fire everyone and say they are
going to be non-union from now on - announce they are cutting
worker’s pay by 20%- workers go on strike.
• Workers surround factory- refuse to let strikebreakers enter- Frick
calls in 300 Pinkertons to force workers away- 7 killed, 150 wounded.
• PA Gov calls in state militia of 8000 troops
to support Pinkertons (they just observe)
• Strikers arrested on charges of disturbing
the peace and restricting trade- 167 go to
jail.
• Shows power of owners, and gov’t support
of business – but it also won workers
(and unions) widespread sympathy
PANIC OF 1893
• Worst financial crisis of 1800s, and the 1st depression of the new
industrial age.
• 20% unemployment, 8000 businesses go bankrupt.
• Sparked by a collapse in the stock market, long term causes were
overbuilding of RR and speculation in stocks.
• Persuades many to give up laissez faire, people are looking for gov’t
intervention
THE POPULIST CHALLENGE
THE FARMER’S REVOLT
• Farmers didn’t need the panic to persuade them, they had been asking
for gov’t help for some time.
• While farmers had influence in many agricultural states, those states
had smaller populations, and farmers were losing national influence.
• In both the south and the west, the cycle of debt created huge
burdens, and more and more farmers became motivated to seek
political influence by attempting to break the hold of industry on the
government
FARMER’S ALLIANCES
• Similar to the Grange, it began with educational and social goals,
centered in the South (though will spread to 43 states)
• Main complaint was that farmers struggle with cashflow during
much of the year- and are at mercy of RR
• Wanted Subtreasury Plan which would loan farmers up to 80% of
the value of their crops until harvest, and for the gov’t to run grain
storage, not RR
THE PEOPLE’S PARTY
(POPULISTS)
• Farmer’s Alliance decided they needed a national party to fight for
their rights. Created Populist party in 1891- became a major factor in
South and West
• Wanted to expand beyond farmers to all “producers” (industrial
workers too) saying “Eastern Establishment” of RR, Banking and
Industry were exploitive
• Last great expression of TJ’s vision of America as a nation of
independent producers. Not anti- technology –but wanted gov’t
regulation to make sure they were regulated in the public interest
THE POPULIST PLATFORM
• Populist Platform 1892 asked for:
– Unlimited coinage of silver at a ratio of 16:1 to create inflation
– A graduated income tax to redistribute wealth.
– Government ownership of RR, telephone and telegraph
– Initiative, Referendum, and Recall on federal as well as local ballots
– Postal savings banks run by the gov’t.
– Direct election of senators
– An 8 hours workday.
THE POPULIST COALITION
• There were some efforts to join Black and White farmers
together under Populism, but the ever prevalent racism of
the era made it difficult. Black Farmers create Colored
Farmer’s alliance, but (those who CAN vote) generally
refuse to abandon the party of Lincoln.
• Populism also popular with women (reform!) and western
states were the 1st to offer women the vote. (Wyoming
1869, Utah 1870, Colorado 1893, Idaho 1896)
• Populists nominated James B Weaver for President in 1892.
Carried 4 states (very rare for a 3rd party) – had 9% of
popular vote
THE GOVERNMENT AND
LABOR
• Government and Industry were BFFs, and employers had no problem
asking for support to put down what they thought of as “threats to
public order”.
• Coxey’s Army: band of unemployed (led by Jacob Coxey) who
marched on Washington asking for government relief. Dispersed by
Army.
PULLMAN STRIKE
1894
• Pullman cars were sleeper cars. Built in a Company Town outside
Chicago. 1892 owners cut wages 25% in response to homestead
strike- but kept company rents etc.. So the workers strike- and
encourage ALL RR workers in US to support them.
• RR workers refuse to work on any train with a pullman car- so
pullman owners attach cars to ALL trains- including mail
trains…which brings in the Federal government. Pres. Cleveland
gets courts involved- and breaks strike.
• In Re Debs: Eugene Debs (pres of union) jailed for violating court
order to end strike. Supreme Court upholds- supporting industry
over labor.
POPULISM AND LABOR
• Populists made efforts to reach out to industrial workers in
congressional elections of 1894 – but two of their prime ideas,
subtreasury plan and lower interest rates, weren’t really issues that
resonated in urban areas- they would make food cost more, and
wages worth less….
• Plus- the strongly protestant “morality” of many populist speeches
didn’t work for Catholic immigrant laborers
• Urban workers shift to Republican party, thinking a high tariff would
help restore prosperity – leading to a congressional landslide (gain
117 seats in house!)
BRYAN AND FREE SILVER
• William Jennings Bryan ( a Dem from NB with significant populist
though) was a 36 year old congressman running for president in 1896
– became spokesman for an idea of abandoning gold standard.
• If we base $$ on silver, not gold, we can have more, which will create
inflation, (which is good for farmers),and those in debt would be able
to get clear b/c $$ would be “cheaper”.
• For populists, silver represented the idea of a return to power of
ordinary people, not the super-rich.
CROSS OF GOLD SPEECH
• Given at Democratic national convention
• “It is the issue of 1776 over again. Our
ancestors, had the courage to declare their
political independence of every other
nation; shall we, their descendants, declare
that we are less independent than our forefathers? No, my friends, that will never be the
verdict of our people. Therefore, we care not upon what lines the battle is fought. Having
behind us the producing masses of this nation and the world, supported by the
commercial interests, the laboring interests, and the toilers everywhere, we will answer
their demand for a gold standard by saying to them:You shall not press down upon the
brow of labor this crown of thorns; you shall not crucify mankind upon a cross of gold”
ELECTION OF 1896
• Democratic and populists together supported Bryan. He
went on national speaking tour to promote. Republicans
nominated William McKinley of OH (who had created the
highest tariff in history as congressman – McKinley tariff
48%) who said gold was the only “honest” currency, and
refused to travel and speak (Front Porch Campaign)
• Election itself famous as 1st “modern” in terms of the $$
spent- esp by Reps (who spent $10 Mil, Bryan spent $300K)
country flooded with posters, buttons etc. Also last with
high turnout
• McKinley wins Industrial areas- Bryan carries south and west
– Republican party will be dominant until great depression.
WIZARD OF OZ
• Written by L Frank Baum in 1896 as a metaphor for the
election.
• Dorothy (who represents the ordinary citizen) wore
“silver shoes” (soft $, no one is sure of their power) to
walk on the “yellow brick road” (gold standard- the path
we all know)
• Scarecrow represents the mid-western farmers, Tin man
urban labor. Cowardly Lion is William Jennings Bryan, the
Wizard is McKinley.
• City of Oz is an industrial capital. Wicked Witch actually
from East (they flipped it later for the movie) represents
industrial owners.
THE SEGREGATED
SOUTH
THE REDEEMERS IN POWER
• White Democrats have had control since 1870s- call themselves
“Redeemers” who are “resorting” the southern way of life. Undo as
much of reconstruction as possible- lower taxes (esp on land) cut
funds for medical facilities and schools (In LA, literacy went DOWN
in late 1800s) and created a an environment to repress African
Americans
• Allowed convicts (many of whom were black as it was easy to get in
trouble with law) to be rented out- and suddenly we have cheap
involuntary labor in the south again…
FAILURE OF THE NEW SOUTH
DREAM
• The plan had been for a “New” south with a shift in focus from
plantation agriculture to smaller farms, increasing industry, and growing
cities.
• Henry Grady editor of Atlanta Constitution said south had everything
needed (factors of production: land, labor, capital) to out shine the north.
• But Still way behind, which is booming, South isn’t even close to catching
up. (though some industries like coal mining in Appalachia are new)
• With exception of a few companies (like American Tobacco) most $$
came from the North- ex. US Steel owned the largest Steel Foundry in
the South (Birmingham) Northern companies also controlled ¾ of the
RR
• In 1890 south had 10% of industry in US, same amount it had in 1860.
Per Capita income 60% of national average. 70% of workforce
agricultural labor
TEXTILES
COMPANY TOWNS
• Textile mills had originally been in North, but the cotton is in the southso after war mills moved there.
• Mill country settled in Piedmont (hilly, good streams) which had been back
country b/c plantations centered on coast.
• Life of a mill worker tough (as bad as sharecropping) Mill itself earned 3070% profit, workers paid 50% of Northern wages – often paid in “scrip”
(company $$) not cash
• Mills ran a “company store” where employees could buy food/goods with
scrip or on credit, creating the same cycle of debt/poverty seen with
sharecroppers, with Mill owner replacing planation owner in the scenario.
BLACK LIFE IN THE SOUTH
• Upper south had “better” opportunities- but deep south
was pretty much as it had been (or worse) at end of
reconstruction.
• There was a small Black middle class (teachers, doctors,
undertakers, shopkeepers) that served black communitybut there was very little business integration.
• Blacks generally not able to become supervisors or get
“white collar” jobs
THE KANSAS
EXODUS
• 40,000 – 60,000 left the south
seeking land in Kansas when
Homestead Act was opened for
African Americans. Shows their continued longing for financial
independence and land.
• Not a ton of them keep the land (lack $$ for machinery that makes
farming profitable etc) but very few return to the south
• It may seem surprising how few blacks left the south- but few
northern employers were willing to hire them. Won’t really head
north until wwi. (Great Migration)
THE DECLINE OF BLACK
POLITICS
• Neither voting or office holding came to an instantaneous, abrupt halt
after reconstruction (still African Americans in office in 1880 and even
90s)- it was gradual.
• But as racial restrictions tightened- other areas like law or the church,
seemed to offer better opportunities for leadership in the Black
community
• Black women became political leaders- not as candidates, but as
activists who preached the necessity of “respectable” behavior in
order to gain equal rights.
THE ELIMINATION OF BLACK
VOTING
• Planned Disenfranchisement begins in 1880s-90s, during economic
downturn. Can’t simply eliminate (15th amendment) so use poll tax,
literacy, grandfather clause etc… as well as Gerrymandering to break
up voting groups- including poor whites, which is returning power to
the planter class.
• Certainly successful- in 1940 3% of eligible blacks were registered to
vote
THE LAW OF
SEGREGATION
• It is interesting that the south was not traditionally geographically
segregated- blacks and whites had always lived and worked in same
areas (as opposed to North) –but they were not supposed to use
same facilities. Southern (and Northern) states created sep hotels,
restaurants, schools, hospitals etc…
• In various challenges (like the Slaughterhouse cases) Court ruled 14th
amendments protected against Federal infringements, not state essentially overturned Civil Rights Acts.
PLESSY V FERGUSON 1896
• Caps the failure of Civil Rights
for African Americans PostReconstruction
• Homer Plessy arrested for
refusing to leave a RR car for
whites (he was 7/8 white)
Court upheld the law, saying
that there were black cars
available
• Validated Segregation, which
won’t be challenged again until
1950s.
SEGREGATION AND
WHITE DOMINATION
• So separate facilities became
required- but equal they were not
• The point wasn’t even really to
keep races apart- but to ensure
that blacks KNEW that they were
the “inferior” group. Had to wait
until whites had been served in stores,
had to “give way” on sidewalks- or get up from seats on busses…..
• In areas where Asians had been brought in for rice farming there might be
3 schools: White, Black, and Asian….
THE RISE OF
LYNCHING
• If an African America refused
to accept of comply with the
law and social systems- they
were taking a huge risk, b/c reprisals were real.
• Every year from 1883 to 1905 at LEAST 50 people were lynched in
south (majority black men) over 5000 total from 1800-1950.
• Some lynching were secretive and at night- others in broad daylight in
public areas- law enforcement sometimes INVOLVED. Most common
(and damning) charge was having “violated” a white woman.
POLITICS, RELIGION, AND
MEMORY
• As time passed and wounds healed (sort of) north and south came back
together- with the price being racial equality.
• War became “brother against brother” where BOTH sides fought
valiantly for a legitimate cause- states’ rights vs union – in the national
racism of the era, slavery became a minor issue. Both sides repudiated
Reconstruction.
• Again- south full of their “lost cause” mentality and confederate prideerect monument to the war and heroes (like Lee) represented Christian
virtue
• Both northern and southern textbooks came to describe the antebellum
era as full of happy slaves, and reconstruction as a period of misrule by
radicals
REDRAWING THE
BOUNDARIES
• American society was developing
fractures in terms of class and race,
redefining freedom (again!!) to exclude
those deemed “unworthy” of American
liberty. Lots of derogatory talk and
imagery about the “inferior” Blacks,
Asians, Jews etc…
THE NEW IMMIGRATION
AND NEW NATIVISM
• Had started with reaction against Irish immigration in 1st wave- became
even stronger (and the Irish joined in ) against Southern/Eastern
European immigrants.
• Fear was that “Anglo-Saxon” heritage would be diluted and lost, and
angry about the fact that waves of immigrants kept industrial wages low,
also worried they would bring “radical” political agendas. But businesses
encouraged immigration- FOR the cheap labor
• Government began restricting immigration, US rejected paupers (you
need $18 to enter the US),
criminals, convicts, the insane, and the illiterate after 1897
CHINESE EXCLUSION
AND CHINESE RIGHTS
• Chinese workers had been brought in
from 1850s-70s as cheap labor (RR,
Rice plantations). Mostly single men,
and many went back eventually. But in 1870s more families
started to come- in 1875 Congress bars Chinese Women (says
they are all prostitutes) Refuses to allows wives/daughters of
men already here.
• Beginning in 1882- begin cutting off Chinese immigration all
together- made “permanent” in 1902 (repealed in 1940s) There
are about 100K Chinese in US- were they citizens?
COURT CASES
• Chinese faces HUGE discrimination- and took
issues to the courts –where they had success
(though that doesn’t help the hatred)
• Tape v. Hurley: Said San Fran had to provide
access to education (seg schools)
• Yick Wo v. Hopkins: struck down laws that
prevented Chinese from owning certain
businesses
• US v. Wong Kim Ark: Children of Chinese born
in US are citizens
• Still- courts said US could deport Chinese at
any point- with or without cause.
BOOKER T WASHINGTON
• Advocated education for African Americans to
EARN equality. (44% illiterate in 1900) 1881
Founded Tuskegee Institute in Alabama teaching
“useful trades as a means towards self respect and
economic equality”.
• Did not publically fight segregation (which earned
him criticism, in reality he worked hard under an
assumed name) urged instead that blacks should
improve themselves, and adopt white habits so they
would be “more acceptable”
THE RISE OF THE AFL
• American Federation of Labor: Created in 1890s- with very
limited and specific goals (to make it less scary) stay away from
Utopian ideals. Used Walkout and Boycott, but usually not strike
• Not a “catch-all” separated specific trades, with AFL as “umbrella”,
and only admitted skilled labor
• Spoke of “Fair Share” Better wages/hours, improved working
conditions
• Organized “closed shops” all workers in industry had to be in the
union, which gave them greater bargaining power. Also said courts
that restricted unions were going against “liberty of contract”
• Samuel Gompers: President from founding
until his death in 1924
THE WOMEN’S ERA
• Women had greater career opportunities- there were over 5 million
female workers in 1900. Middle and upper class women did not work
(esp after marriage) not socially acceptable, but “might” before
married in top of 3 tiers of “women’s work”
– 1. Service Jobs. Teachers/Nurses, most “respected” jobs. Clerk/secretary,
shop girl, seamstress, telephone operator also respectable- generally
open only to “American” girls, not immigrants
– 2. Factory work- had variations, could be/become respectable and allow
social mobility, or could be sweatshop horrible
– 3. Domestic Servant. Represented 40% of working women. Again, there
were respectable positions (Governess, Cook, etc…) but generally the
bottom class. Most likely to be foreign born or African American.
TEMPERANCE AND
SUFFRAGE
• Women are still big in the reform business.
• Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was the
largest political organization for women. Wanted
prohibition- but also economic and social reform:
including suffrage.
• Most effective argument fit in to racism and nativism of
the time- that respectable “white” (middle class) women
could not vote, but immigrants and African Americans
could.
BECOMING A
WORLD POWER
AMERICAN IMPERIALISM
AMERICAN EXPANSIONISM
• US had Tended towards isolationism- we were building our
own country, and our location kept us out of the action. But
Industrialization has brought us into the world economy, and
that will bring us into world politics as well- we want to show
we are one of the “big boys”
• Manifest Destiny had in fact been fairly imperialist- we just
conquered the land next door, and our own natives rather
than “tropical dependencies”.
• Once our territory spread “sea to sea” we began looking in
other areas: Alaska purchased in 1867 to keep Russia out of N
America. We also occupied the Midway Islands, Hawaiian
Islands and Samoa in the Pacific to facilitate trade and support
our navy (12th in the world- after Chile).
THE NEW IMPERIALISM
• Instead of looking for land to settle, or for treasure, European (and
Asian- Japan is involved) nations are looking for industrial resources
and markets. European countries are small, and their economies are
big- colonies represent an ideal monopoly
• Big part of imperialism is that white are not only the “fittest” (and
therefore destined to rule)
but have a “duty” to
“civilize” other races….
The “White Man’s Burden”.
THE LURE OF EMPIRE
• As Frederick Jackson Turner said- Americans have always been defined by
the idea of a Frontier- exploring new lands and creating new
opportunities. We’ve run out at home…. Josiah Strong writes in Our
Country (1885) that we have a duty to bring our “light to the dark
corners of the world”
• Alfred Thayer Mahan published The Influence of Sea Power on
History in which he argued that Great Britain had become the most
powerful nation in Europe by developing a strong Navy. Encouraged US
government to start spending $$ on ships (which we do beginning in
1896 with 11 battleships) and to build a Canal across Central America
(completed 1911)
ANNEXATION OF HAWAII
• We overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy (which is funny, b/c Europeans
made Hawaii a monarchy in the 1st place) and annexed the Islands to
protect the rights of pineapple plantation proprietors
YELLOW JOURNALISM
• Newspaper owners (Hearst and Pulitzer)
used sensationalist stories of crime and
corruption- domestic and foreign to sell
papers. (called “yellow” from a popular
cartoon at time of “yellow kid”.)
• Lots of patriotism at this point- “Star
Spangled Banner” became national
anthem, Pledge of Allegiance (loyalty
oath!) became standard practice at
schools etc…
THE SPLENDID LITTLE WAR
• Spanish American war (1898) Our 1st foray into international politics
as a powerful nation.
• 1895 Cuba (a remnant of the once mighty Spanish Empire) was
attempting to gain independence. US has significant investments in
Cuba (sugar plantations and mining interests) and we like the idea of
them as independent- we’ll get better deals.
• Feb 15th 1897 US battleship Maine blows up of coast of Havana – 260
Sailors die (84 survive) Cause of explosion unknown- but to
Americans
it seemed like obvious treachery, and revenge became the order of
the day (“Remember the Maine!”)
• April 25th 1897- US declares war on Spain
TELLER AMENDMENT
• US promised Cuba independence
as part of their justification for
participation in the war. Wanted
international support and to be
seen as a world leader
• Sec of State John Hay is the one
who names it “Splendid” It’s short,
(just over a year) fairly painless
(only 5000 Americans die, most
from disease), and hugely popular.
ROOSEVELT AT SAN JUAN
HILL
• Most highly publicized (b/c he wrote the copy himself)
battle of the war.
• Teddy Roosevelt had been a congressman, and was serving
as asst. secretary of the Navy when the war started.
Formed his own company- a “cross section of the
American population” (Wealthy easternersCowboys/Indians, immigrants- no blacks)
• Made TR a national hero- elected governor of NY when
her returned, and McKinley’s VP in 1900.
AN AMERICAN
EMPIRE
• War escalated from “helping”
Cubans to gaining an Empire
(after all, all the cool kids have one…) and we have a duty to “uplift
and civilize” those unprepared for independence.
• We fought not only in Cuba, but in the Philippines, Puerto Rico, and
Guam (all bits of Sp Empire). Not looking for land to settle, or even
resources- but to have power (and areas for trade)
CUBA: PLATT AMENDMENT
• After Cuban independence, large sections of econ still controlled by
US- so we make sure things work our way.
• Platt Amendment adopted in 1898 (end of Sp-American War) said
that Cuba could not make treaties “which would weaken their
independence” (meaning if we don’t like it) or incur debts (except to
US) Basically- we want to dominate their trade. We also got the land
for a naval base (Guantanamo)
OPEN DOOR POLICY
• All through late 1800s China (once the most powerful econ
in the world, now riding the struggle bus since they chose
not to allow any new technology around 1500) has been
forced to sign unequal treaties with European powers, and
has been carved into spheres of influence.
• US feels left out- we are coming
late to the party- so we suggest Open Door Policy so that all
nations can exploit China equally.
Yet remember, no Chinese
immigration…)
THE PHILIPPINE WAR
• Cubans, Filipinos, and Puerto Ricans hoped that the US would help
them gain independence- we certainly said that was our goal – but it
became clear to us that domination would be more profitable….
• We had promised the Philippines we would leave – and didn’tMcKinley said we needed to help out “little brown brothers”.
• Let to a 2nd conflict (1899-1903) where the Filipinos under Emilio
Aguinaldo tried to throw US out. US troops do not behave well- lots
of civilian attacks. When it is over- Philippines are poorer than under
Spain (as was Puerto Rico which we also kept) Philippines become
independent in 1946
CITIZENS OR SUBJECTS
• We’ve never done colonies- this is confusing for us. Right of self gov’t is
supposed to be core value (it’s in the Declaration of Independence!)
• Insular Cases: 1901 Supreme Court asked to determine whether or
not people in newly acquired territories were American citizens- the
answer is ….sort of
• It’s Congress’s job to determine citizenship. “The Constitution does not
follow the flag”
– Some rights apply to all American territories
– Others will not apply to those “unfamiliar with American law”
• Hawaiians became citizens immediately. Puerto Ricans do in 1917, but
both Puerto Rico and Guam are still in territory limbo…
REPUBLIC OR EMPIRE
• Not all Americans are jazzed about the Empire thing either. Some
believe we should concentrate on issues at home, or that colonies will
be expensive, or (racism again!!) that we don’t want more foreigners to
deal with – publish “Liberty Tracts” saying we don’t want Empire. William
Jennings Bryan uses it as part of his platform when he runs for president
(again) in 1900
• But overall Americans were excited about our great “victory”Imperialism increases nationalism, and gives a nice bump to econ – and
we decide we LIKE being involved in world affairs (What did G
Washington know anyway….)