THE “YELLOW” PAGES
By Elizabeth Davis
Table of Contents
Topic
Humanities III Course Description: Nuts and Bolts
Tone: Positive (happiness, pleasure, friendliness/courtesy, animation, romance,
tranquility
Tone: Neutral (general, rational/logical, self-control, apathy)
Tone: Humor/Irony/Sarcasm
Tone: Negative (general, sadness, pain, unfriendliness, anger, passion, arrogance/ selfimportance, sorrow/fear/worry
Tone: Negative (submission/timidity)
Verbs: for literary analysis
Verbs: to use instead of exemplifies
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the author
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the style/content
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the diction
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the syntax
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the
organization/structure/point of view
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the imagery
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the characters (physical
qualities)
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the characters (mental
qualities)
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the characters (moral
qualities)
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the characters (spiritual
qualities)
Adjectives for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion: Describing the characters (social
qualities)
Page(s)
Nouns for Use in Literary/Rhetorical Discussion (analyzing characters,
structure/organization/point of view, syntax, genre/purpose, sound devices)
The Language of Argument
Transition Words
Theme (vocabulary and identifying theme)
Developing an Analytical Voice
How to Connect Rhetorical Choices to Meaning (diction, syntax, imagery)
How to Connect Rhetorical Choices to Meaning (metaphor, simile, personification)
How to Connect Rhetorical Choices to Meaning (hyperbole, symbol)
How to Connect Rhetorical Choices to Meaning (detail, allusion)
Biblical Allusions Chart
Writing Errors to Avoid
Aristotle and the Appeals of Rhetoric
Rhetorical Web diagram [as created by David Jolliffe, former Chief Reader]
Types of Essay Prompts Now in Use for the AP English Language and Composition Exam
Rubric (Generic) for AP Essay Assignments
Grading Scale for AP Essay Assignments
Poetry Focus Statement
Vocabulary Prefixes, Roots, Bases, and Latin Phrases
THE YELLOW PAGES (2014-2015)
Mrs. Jennifer Lloyd, McKinney Boyd High School
(Document adapted by Jennifer Lloyd with thanks to Jennifer Cullen, Elizabeth Davis, and Beth Priem)
Welcome to AP Humanities English III (Advanced Placement Language and Composition). File these yellow pages in
the reference section of your 3-ring notebook and bring these pages to class with you daily. The yellow pages are
designed to provide you with a ready reference for information you will need in order to complete some course
requirements and class assignments.
Required Readings – JUNIORS:
1. 1984 – George Orwell (Summer Reading)
2. The Scarlet Letter – Nathaniel Hawthorn (Norton Critical Edition is Encouraged!)
3. The Crucible – Arthur Miller
4. Devil in the White City – Erik Larson
5. The Great Gatsby – F. Scott Fitzgerald (available for checkout)
6. The Things They Carried – Tim O’Brien
7. King James Version of the Bible – We will use this as a year-long supplemental source
8. Subscription to one of the following periodicals: The New Yorker, The New York Times, The
Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal (This may be an online subscription!)
SUPPLIES
1. 3-ring notebook, dividers, and loose-leaf notebook paper
2. pens – blue or black ink for writing, red for editing activities
3. #2 pencils
4. highlighters – at least four colors (including pink, yellow, blue, and green)
5. copy of the novel or play we are currently reading
ALL OF THE ABOVE ARE NEEDED IN CLASS DAILY.
NOTEBOOK ORGANIZATION: (Recommended)
Section 1: Yellow Pages
Section 2: AP Multiple Choice
Section 3: Rhetorical Analysis
Section 4: Argument
Section 5: Materials for the novel or play we are currently reading
TYPES OF GRADES AND THEIR VALUES:
 “Formative” Grades - daily, homework, in-class, and quizzes over reading assignments
 Summative or Product “ grades such as timed writings, final drafts of process papers, major tests over
entire works or units of study, APMC tests (Advanced Placement Multiple Choice Practice Tests), and
projects –
School number – 469-302-3473 (E-mail is quicker and preferred!)
E-mail – jlloyd@mckinneyisd.net
DEPARTMENT AND GRADING POLICIES:
1. All work—classwork, homework, handwritten, and typed, must have an MLA formatted heading.
2. Required typed homework must be in MLA format; handwritten copies will not be accepted.
3. All assignments are individual in nature, unless otherwise indicated to the student.
4. Tests: If a student is absent the day of an exam, the student will complete a make-up exam.
5. Late Work and Absences:
Late Work
v 1 day late = - 30 points, no redo
v 2 days or more = Not accepted, no redo
v Late work is not eligible for redo under the MISD Redo Policy
v Barring any extenuating circumstances that are documented with the Boyd administrative team,
assignments turned in after the beginning of the class period 1 day late are no longer accepted.
6. Students who are absent have 1 day for every day absent to turn in make-up work.
7. All major assignments, such as papers, are DUE ON THE ORIGINAL DUE DATE. No Exceptions. If a
student is absent the day a paper or other major assignment is due, the assignment is due the day
the student returns at the beginning of the period. For school sponsored absences, students are
required to turn in all work on the original due date.
8. If a student makes an 80% or below (Summative AND Formative), the student is able to make up the
assignment for up to an 80%, ONLY after having a conversation with the individual’s teacher. Dates for
tutoring can be found on HAC under the assignment information.
9. If a student refuses the opportunity to complete an assignment during class time or does not choose
to turn the assignment in, then there will be no make-up opportunities provided. Students turning in
late assignments forfeit their opportunity to retake/redo the assignment.
10. It is the responsibility of the student to check the webpage for syllabus updates, links to assignments, and
due dates.
CHEATING AND PLAGIARISM:
Following a complete investigation, any student caught cheating will receive a grade of "0”. If the assignment in
question is copied from another student, both students will be penalized with a grade of “0”.. Students caught
cheating do not fall under the MISD Make-Up Policy and are not eligible to redo the assignment.
Examples of CHEATING include, but are not limited to the below-mentioned items:
• Copying by hand or copying with the aide of media sources (text messaging, faxing, emailing, photographing,
tweeting, posting via media), or in any way duplicating assignments that are turned in, wholly or in part, as a
student’s original work
• Exchanging assignments, or portions of assignments, with other students and submitting for a grade, as one’s own
work
• Using books, notes, reviews, study guides, etc. during tests or quizzes without the permission of the teacher
• Giving and/or receiving answers during tests or quizzes
• Submitting material written by someone else or rephrasing the ideas of another without giving the author’s name or
source
• Submitting/presenting purchased papers/projects/assignments, in their entirety, or in portions, as your own form
the Internet or other sources, including but not limited to tutors, parents, siblings, or friends
• Assisting in plagiarism by providing your work to others
A VOCABULARY FOR DESCRIBING LANGUAGE 2010-2011
TONE
TONE (POSITIVE)
Happiness
amiable*
elevated*
sprightly*
cheery
enthusiastic
contented*
exuberant*
ecstatic
joyful
elevated*
jubilant*
Pleasure
cheerful
satisfied
enraptured*
amused
peaceful
appreciative
playful
whimsical*
pleasant
Friendliness, Courtesy
accommodating*
confiding
helpful
polite
tender
approving
cordial*
indulgent*
sociable
tolerant
caressing
courteous
kindly
solicitous*
trusting
comforting
forgiving
obliging*
soothing
compassionate
gracious*
pitying
sympathetic
Animation
ardent*
excited
feverish*
lively
breathless
earnest*
hasty
passionate
brisk
ecstatic
hearty
rapturous*
crisp
energetic
hopeful
vigorous*
eager
exalted*
inspired
impassioned*
Romance
affectionate
lustful
amorous*
sensual*
erotic*
tender
fanciful*
ideal*
Tranquility
calm
relaxed
hopeful
soothing
meditative*
spiritual
optimistic
dreamy
serene
TONE (NEUTRAL)
General
authoritative*
disbelieving
matter-of-fact
restrained*
baffled*
factual
nostalgic*
sentimental*
ceremonial
formal
objective*
shocked
clinical*
informative
questioning
urgent
detached*
learned
reminiscent*
Rational/Logical
admonitory*
curious
frank*
instructive
preoccupied*
uncertain
argumentative
deliberate
incredulous*
oracular*
puzzled
unequivocal*
candid*
didactic*
indignant*
pensive*
sincere
probing*
coaxing
doubting
innocent
persuasive
studied*
critical
explanatory
insinuating*
pleading
thoughtful
Self-Control
solemn*
gentle
wary*
serious
temperate*
cautious
serene
imperturbable*
prudent*
simple
nonchalant*
mild
cool
Apathy
blasé*
dry*
indifferent*
sluggish*
bored
dull
inert*
stoical*
colorless
feeble*
languid*
sophisticated*
defeated
helpless
monotonous*
vacant*
dispassionate*
hopeless
resigned*
TONE (HUMOR/IRONY/SARCASM)
amused
bantering*
condescending*
contemptuous*
facetious*
flippant*
ironic*
irreverent*
mocking
mock-serious*
ribald*
ridiculing
scornful*
sharp
whimsical*
wry*
playful
hilarious
bitter
cynical*
giddy*
joking
patronizing*
sarcastic
silly
belittling
uproarious
caustic*
disdainful*
humorous
malicious*
pompous*
sardonic*
taunting
haughty*
comical
droll*
insolent*
mock-heroic*
quizzical*
satiric*
teasing
insulting
TONE(NEGATIVE)
General
accusing
artificial
childish
condescending
disgruntled*
harsh
insulting
shameful
threatening
aggravated*
audacious*
choleric*
contradictory
disgusted
hateful
irritated
superficial
uninterested
agitated*
belligerent*
coarse*
critical
disinterested
hurtful
manipulative*
surly*
angry
bitter
cold
desperate
passive
indignant*
obnoxious*
testy*
arrogant
brash*
condemnatory
disappointed
furious
inflammatory*
quarrelsome
Sadness
despairing
melancholy*
despondent*
maudlin*
foreboding*
regretful
gloomy
tragic
bleak
Pain
annoyed
disgusted
mournful
sorrowful
uneasy*
biter
dismal*
pathetic
sour
vexed*
bored
fretful*
plaintive*
sulky
worried
crushed
irritable
querulous*
sullen”
disappointed
miserable
sore
troubled
Unfriendliness
accusing
disparaging*
severe
belittling
impudent*
spiteful
boorish*
pitiless
suspicious
cutting
reproving*
unsociable
derisive*
scolding
reproachful*
Anger
belligerent*
indignant*
furious
enraged
livid*
wrathful*
savage
Passion
fierce
insane
reckless
frantic*
impetuous*
wild
greedy
impulsive*
voracious*
jealous
hysterical
nervous
condescending
pedantic*
confident
imperious*
peremptory*
stiff
contemptuous
didactic*
defiant
impressive
profound*
saucy*
pretentious*
bombastic*
dignified
smug*
proud
Arrogance/Self-Importance
boastful
bold
pompous*
supercilious*
self-righteous*
assured
domineering
egotistical
knowing
lofty
resolute*
sententious*
Sorrow/Fear/Worry
aggravated
confused
grave*
ominous*
serious
anxious
depressed
hollow*
paranoid*
staid*
apologetic*
disturbed
morose*
pessimistic
enigmatic*
apprehensive*
embarrassing
nervous
poignant*
concerned
fearful
numb
remorseful*
Submission/Timidity
aghast*
awed
groveling*
obsequious*
shy
timid
alarmed
contrite*
ingratiating*
resigned
submissive*
tremulous*
ashamed
self-deprecatory*
meek*
respectful
surprised
unpretentious*
astonished
docile*
modest*
reverent*
sycophantic*
willing
astounded
fawning*
obedient]
servile*
terrified
VERBS
These verbs will be especially effective when the subject is the author or a character. They are excellent replacements for
“be” verbs and instrumental in the formulation of thesis and theme statements. Careful use of these verbs can result in precise
identification of an author’s purpose. Follow your teacher’s directions to categorize the verbs as transitive, intransitive,
positive, negative, or neutral.
VERBS FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS
accentuates
accepts
affects
alleviates
analyzes
approaches
assumes
attacks
bases
believes
chooses
chronicles
compels*
completes
conducts
conforms
contests*
contrasts
defines
defies
delineates*
despises
deviates*
differentiates*
discovers
discusses
distinguishes
distorts*
elicits*
emphasizes
enumerates*
envisions
experiences
explains
fantasizes
focuses
generalizes*
guides
holds
honors
imagines
impels*
infers*
inspires
inundates*
justifies
lampoons*
lists
manipulates
minimizes
observes
opposes
patronizes*
performs
ponders*
portrays
presumes
produces
provides
qualifies*
recalls
recites
reflects
refers
represents
results
seems
sees
states
strives*
supports
suppresses*
understands
vacillates*
achieves
allows
argues
attempts
challenges
claims
concerns
confronts*
contributes
demonstrates
details
differs
displays
downplays
encounters
evokes
expresses
forces
heightens
identifies
implies*
intends
juxtaposes*
maintains
moralizes*
organizes
permits
postulates*
projects
questions
recollects
regards
reveals
selects
suggests
symbolizes
values
adopts
alludes*
ascertains*
attributes*
changes
comments
concludes
considers
conveys
depicts*
determines
directs
disputes
dramatizes
enhances
excludes
extends
foreshadows
highlights
illustrates
includes
interprets
lambasts”
makes
muses*
overstates
personifies*
prepares
promotes
rationalizes
records
regrets
ridicules
specifies
summarizes
sympathizes
verifies*
advocates*
alters*
assesses*
avoids
characterizes
compares
condescends
contends*
convinces
describes
develops
disappoints
disrupts*
elevates
enriches
expands
extrapolates*
functions
hints
illuminates
indicates
interrupts
laments*
manages
notes
outlines
persuades
presents
proposes
reasons
recounts
rejects
satirizes*
speculates*
supplies
traces
VERBS TO USE INSTEAD OF EXEMPLIFIES
appears
asserts
connotes*
corroborates*
depicts
discloses*
evinces*
exhibits
manifests*
points to
shows
substantiates*
validates*
attests to
defines
elucidates*
expounds*
proves
suggests
certifies
demonstrates
endorses*
exposes
ratifies*
typifies*
confirms
denotes*
establishes
intimates*
relates
upholds
ADJECTIVES FOR USE IN LITERARY/RHETORICAL DISCUSSION
DESCRIBING THE AUTHOR
cultured
intellectual
sensible
rational
perceptive
visionary*
idealistic*
spiritual
sophisticated*
original
liberal*
progressive*
realistic*
romantic*
opinionated*
intolerant
narrow-minded*
sentimental
erudite*
philosophic*
prophetic*
orthodox*
whimsical*
radical*
shallow
hypocritical*
skeptical*
well-read
analytical
optimistic
unorthodox*
humorous
reactionary*
superficial
fanatical*
cynical*
sagacious*
imaginative
broad-minded*
sympathetic
conservative*
unprejudiced
bigoted
provincial*
DESCRIBING STYLE/CONTENT
lucid*
graphic*
exact
concise*
piquant*
aphoristic*
poetic
prosaic*
pure
vigorous*
fluent
glib*
polished*
classical
rhetorical*
turgid*
vague
diffuse*
ungraceful
harsh
unpolished
crude*
utilitarian*
humanistic*
subjective*
melodramatic*
credible*
recondite*
absurd
trivial
intelligible*
succinct*
syllogistic*
plain
forceful
natural
artistic
pompous*
verbose*
abrupt*
vulgar*
pragmatic*
fanciful*
controversial
commonplace
explicit*
condensed*
allusive*
simple
eloquent*
restrained*
bombastic*
grandiose*
pedantic*
labored*
formal
naturalistic*
authentic*
mystical*
heretical*
precise
pithy*
metaphorical
homespun*
sonorous*
smooth
extravagant
obscure*
ponderous*
awkward
artificial
impressionistic*
plausible*
improbable*
DESCRIBING DICTION
high or formal
low or informal
concrete
abstract*
esoteric*
learned
connotative*
symbolic
provincial*
colloquial*
inexact
euphemistic*
bombastic*
grotesque
obtuse*
moralistic*
proper
pretentious*
neutral
plain
cultured
picturesque*
slang*
trite*
vulgar*
ordinary
old-fashioned
precise
simple
literal*
sensuous*
idiomatic*
obscure*
jargon*
scholarly
exact
homespun
figurative*
literary
neologistic*
pedantic*
emotional
insipid*
DESCRIBING SYNTAX
loose sentence
compound*
imperative*
euphonic*
rambling
spare
obfuscating*
musical
balanced*
compound-complex*
telegraphic*
epigrammatic*
jerky
unadorned*
terse*
lyrical*
interrupted
declarative*
antithetic*
emphatic
cacophonic*
jumbled
laconic*
elegant
simple*
interrogative*
inverted*
incoherent
monotonous
chaotic
mellifluous*
solid
periodic*
complex*
exclamatory*
rhythmical
tortuous
austere*
journalistic*
lilting*
DESCRIBING ORGANIZATION/STRUCTURE/POINT OF VIEW
spatial*
chronological
flashback
step-by-step
objective*
subjective*
contemplative*
reflective*
clinical*
omniscient*
limited*
flash forward*
nostalgic*
impersonal*
in media res*
reminiscent
dramatic*
DESCRIBING IMAGERY (Substitute these precise adjectives for less precise ones such as vivid, colorful, and powerful.)
bucolic*
pastoral*
gustatory*
olfactory*
tactile*
kinetic*
kinesthetic*
sensual*
sacred
sexual
auditory*
religious
animal
war/military
chaotic
DESCRIBING CHARACTERS (Great substitutions for pretty and ugly!)
Physical Qualities
manly
virile*
robust*
strapping*
stalwart*
muscular
fair
comely*
handsome
graceful
elegant
shapely
ravishing*
dapper*
immaculate
adept*
skillful
agile*
lively
spirited*
vivacious*
sickly
frail
decrepit*
effeminate*
unwomanly
hideous
unkempt*
slovenly*
awkward
graceless
bizarre*
grotesque
repellent*
repugnant*
repulsive
loathsome*
hardy*
brawny*
dainty
attractive
adroit*
nimble*
weak
emaciated*
homely*
clumsy
incongruous*
odious*
sturdy
lovely
delicate
winsome*
dexterous*
active
feeble*
cadaverous*
course*
ungainly*
ghastly
invidious*
Mental Qualities (Great substitutions for smart and stupid! Which comments would you like to see on your papers?)
educated
erudite*
scholarly
wise
astute*
intellectual
precocious*
capable
competent
gifted
apt*
rational
reasonable
sensible
shrewd*
prudent*
observant
clever
ingenious*
inventive
subtle*
cunning*
crafty*
wily*
unintelligent
unschooled*
unlettered*
ignorant
illiterate*
inane*
irrational
puerile*
foolish
fatuous*
vacuous*
simple
thick-skulled*
idiotic
imbecilic*
witless*
deranged*
demented*
articulate*
eloquent*
Moral Qualities (Great substitutions for good and bad!)
idealistic*
innocent
virtuous*
guileless*
upright*
exemplary
undefiled*
temperate*
abstentious*
puritanical*
truthful
honorable
decent
respectable
wicked
notorious*
vicious
incorrigible*
immoral*
unprincipled*
reprobate*
ribald*
vulgar*
intemperate*
deceitful
dishonest
unscrupulous*
vile*
foul*
recalcitrant*
Spiritual Qualities (More great substitutions for good and bad!)
religious
reverent
pious*
regenerate*
holy
saintly
agnostic*
atheistic*
irreligious*
profane*
sacrilegious*
materialistic
diabolic*
fiendlike*
blasphemous*
charitable
faultless
chaste*
austere*
trustworthy
corrupt*
dissembling*
depraved*
sensual*
dishonorable*
philandering*
righteous*
pure
ascetic*
straightforward*
degenerate*
infamous*
indecent*
dissolute*
base*
opportunistic*
devout*
angelic
impious*
carnal*
unregenerate*
faithful
skeptical*
irreverent*
godless
altruistic*
Social Qualities (Terrific substitutions for nice and mean!)
civil*
amicable*
contentious*
tactful*
courteous
cooperative
hospitable*
gracious*
amiable*
convivial*
jovial*
jolly
anti-social*
acrimonious*
quarrelsome
discourteous
impudent*
impolite
ill-mannered
unrefined
rustic*
brusque*
churlish*
fawning*
grumpy
fractious*
crusty*
waspish*
taciturn*
reticent*
unpolished*
genial*
cordial*
urbane*
antagonistic*
insolent*
provincial*
obsequious*
peevish*
gregarious*
sullen*
affable*
congenial*
suave*
misanthropic*
ill-bred
boorish*
sniveling*
petulant*
garrulous*
NOUNS FOR USE IN LITERARY/RHETORICAL DISCUSSION
ANALYZING CHARACTERS
foil*
nemesis*
confidante*
doppelganger*
adversary*
protagonist*
narrator (unknown, reliable, naïve)
ANALYZING STRUCTURE/ORGANIZATION/POINT OF VIEW
foreshadowing
epiphany*
analogy*
extended metaphor*
parallel structure
comparison/contrast
transition
sequence
juxtaposition*
anecdote*
frame story*
arrangement
categorization
placement
person (first, second, third)*
perspective (chronological, geographic, emotional, political)*
ANALYZING SYNTAX
repetition
subject*
phrase*
modifier*
conjunction*
appositive*
comma
abstract noun*
parenthetical expression
hyphen*
catalogue*
parallelism
anaphora*
predicate*
object*
clause*
infinitive*
dependent clause*
independent clause*
interjection*
deliberate fragment*
semicolon*
colon*
pronoun*
proper noun*
concrete noun*
dialogue*
footnote
capitalization for effect
dash*
active voice*
compound nouns/adjectives
IDENTIFYING GENRE/PURPOSE
novel
novella*
letter
sermon
précis*
synopsis
travelogue
essay*
farce*
conceit*
assessment
eulogy*
apology
soliloquy*
fable*
argument
IDENTIFYING SOUND DEVICES
alliteration*
assonance*
end rhyme*
feminine rhyme*
incremental rhyme*
antagonist*
shifts
definition
classification
asyndeton*
direct object*
participle*
subordinate clause*
appositive*
rhetorical question*
common noun*
apostrophe*
inversion*
passive voice*
polysyndeton*
indirect object*
gerund*
preposition*
emphatic
noun*
collective noun*
chiasmus*
antecedent*
tense
autobiography*
speech
critique*
diatribe*
editorial*
elegy*
monologue*
verse
memoir*
treatise*
personal narrative
polemic*
tirade*
parody*
portrayal
biography
abstract*
journey
commentary*
review
allegory*
archetype*
consonance*
masculine rhyme*
repetition*
meter*
rhyme*
slant rhyme*
THE LANGUAGE OF ARGUMENT
VERBS
attack
challenge
validate
answer
grant*
assert
NOUNS
warrant
solution
vested interest
logos*
induction*
audience
rebuttal*
refutation
invective*
qualifier*
charge
qualify
confirm
agree/disagree
generalize
claim
counter
affirm*
verify
specify
propose
repudiate*
argue
resolve
debate
defend
allege*
assume
concede*
dispute
validity
resolution
conflict of interests
counterargument
fallacy*
purpose
antithesis*
slippery slope*
proponent*
begging the question*
plausibility*
bias
enthymeme*
premise*
ad hominem
message
non sequitur*
anecdote*
assertion
justification
practicality
credibility
pathos*
syllogism*
exigence*
precedent*
circular reasoning*
advocacy*
adherent *
cause/effect
proposal
accountability
ethos*
deduction*
speaker
testimonial*
bandwagon*
rhetoric*
red herring*
TRANSITION WORDS
Time
Place
Idea
Extending
elaboratio
n by
comparing
Extending
elaboration
by
contrasting
Extending
elaboration by
emphasizing/clarifyin
g
after,
afterward,
at first, as
before,
finally,
immediatel
y, later,
next, now,
previously,
soon, then
above,
ahead,
among,
beyond,
down,
elsewhere,
farther,
here, in
front of, in
the
background
, near,
nearby,
next to,
there
first,
second,
third,
similarly
, as, in
the same
way, for
instance,
likewise,
however
as, at the
same time,
by
comparison
, equally,
in the same
manner,
likewise,
similarly
although,
and yet, as,
as though, at
the same
time, but, in
contrast,
conversely,
even so,
unlike, even
though,
however, in
spite of,
instead of,
neither,
nevertheless,
on the one
hand, on the
other hand,
provided
that, though,
unfortunatel
y, whereas,
yet
especially, for
instance, in fact,
indeed, that is, in
other words
Transition list from Crafting Expository Argument by Michael Degen
Extending
elaboratio
n by
adding
another
example
moreover,
most
important,
now, so ,
additionally
, again,
also,
especially,
in addition,
in fact, last,
again, also,
besides,
equally
important,
furthermore
, similarly,
in contrast
THEME VOCABULARY
Brendan Kenny’s List of Abstract Ideas for Forming Theme Statements:
alienation
ambition
appearance v. reality
betrayal
bureaucracy
chance/fate/luck
children
courage/cowardice
cruelty/violence
custom/tradition
defeat/failure
despair/discontent/disillusionment
domination/suppression
dreams/fantasies
duty
education
escape
exile
faith/loss of faith
falsity/pretence
family/parenthood
free will/willpower
game/contests/sports
greed
guilt
heart v. reason
heaven/paradise/Utopia
home
identity
illusion/innocence
initiation
instinct
journey (literal or
psychological)
law/justice
loneliness/solitude
loyalty/disloyalty
materialism
memory/the past
mob psychology
music/dance
patriotism
persistence/perseverance
poverty
prejudice
prophecy
repentance
revenge/retribution
ritual/ceremony
scapegoat/victim
social status (class)
the supernatural
time/eternity
war
women/feminism
IDENTIFYING THEME
Method A (sample from Writing Essays about Literature by Kelley Griffith):
Subject
1.
What is the work about? Provide a one to three word answer. See “Theme Vocabulary” above.
Theme
2.
What is the author’s message with regard to #1 as it pertains to the human condition? In other words, what
comment does the work make on human nature, the human condition, human motivation, or human ambition?
3.
In identifying and stating theme, be sure that the observation
(a) is not too terse to express the complexity of the human experience
(b) avoids moralizing words such as should and ought
(c) avoids specific reference to plot and characters
(d) avoids absolute words such as anyone, all, none, everything, and everyone
4.
Using both dependent and independent clauses, write a complex sentence which fulfills the requirements above
and which explains one of the major themes of the work.
Sample for Anna Karenina:
Subject: sacred versus profane love
Theme: Although people can, through no fault of their own, become entrapped in long-lasting and destructive
relationships, “sacred” commitments, like marriage and parenthood, take precedence over extramarital “loves,” no matter
how passionate and deeply felt they may be.
IDENTIFYING THEME
Method B (adapted from material by Brendan Kenny):
1.
Theme is an abstract idea (See “Theme Vocabulary” above.) coupled with a universal comment or observation
which addresses one of the following: (a) human motivation (b) the human condition (c) human ambition.
2.
A strategy for discovering a work’s theme is to apply questions about these areas to the work.
* What image of humankind emerges from the work? If people are good, what good things do they do? If people
are “no damned good” (Mark Twain), how and to what extent are they flawed?
*What moral issues are raised in the work? Who serves as the “moral center” of the work? Who is the one person
with whom the author vests right action and right thought? What values does the moral center embody?
* Is the society or social scheme portrayed by the author life-enhancing or life-destroying? What causes and
perpetuates this society?
* What control over their lives do the characters have? Are there forces beyond their control?
* How do the title, subtitle, epigraph, and names of the characters relate to the theme?
3.
In identifying and stating theme, be sure that the observation
(a) is not too terse to express the complexity of the human experience
(b) avoids moralizing words such as should and ought
(c) avoids specific reference to plot and characters
(d) avoids absolute words such as anyone, all, none, everything, and everyone
4.
Sample for “The Most Dangerous Game”:
Men, when they are courageous and lucky, even in a hostile environment, can overcome the odds against their
survival.
Sample for The Catcher in the Rye:
In the presence of corruption, escape may provide some hope of preserving our innocence but denies our
responsibility to alter, rebel against or sometimes grow to accept what we see as threatening.
Abstract Words for Thematic Ideas: High School
Student Resource (created by NMSI)
Use the following thematic ideas to create a thematic statement that reveals universal meaning. As you develop
your thematic statement, consider these questions:
 What does the text say about _____________________________________________________________?

What is the life lesson being taught about ___________________________________________________?

What are the author’s ideas about __________________________________________________________?
As you read and discuss various texts, add other thematic ideas in the third column.
Extended and Corresponding Ideas
Alienation
Appearance vs. reality
Betrayal
Coming of age
Courage
Dreams
Education
Escape
Evil
Fate
Forgiveness
Freedom
Grief
Honor
Honesty
Identity
Journey
Justice
Love
Loyalty
Nature
Perseverance
Power
Prejudice
Pride
Rebellion
Relationships
Religion
Revenge
Ritual
Social status
Success
Temptation
Time
Violence
Women
Loneliness
Beauty (inner/outer)
Disloyalty
Innocence/loss of
Cowardice
Illusion
Learning
(physical/psychological)
Good (battle between them)
Free will
Repentance
Individuality (and loss of)
Despair
Heroism
Deception
(search for)
(psychological/physical)
Equality
Obsession
Duty
Man’s relationship with
Hardship
Corruption
Stereotypes
Hubris
Conformity
Family
Faith
Retribution
Tradition
Class structures
Failure
Sin
Life stages/cycles
War
Feminism
Developing an Analytical Voice
Level One: Identify how the situation is created; observe what you see
(collecting evidence)
Diction: what types of words are used or repeated?
Imagery: How is the image created? What are its parts? What senses are provoked?
Detail: What’s the setting? Who are the characters? What are the facts of the text
that don’t require quoting its language?
Level Two: What abstract
associations
emerge from the language of the text?
This list of “Level
Two” words is only
a sample list. Any
abstract noun that
names what the
evidence (Level
One) conveys may
be appropriate. See
page 12, (theme
vocabulary) for
additional ideas or
generate your own.
Fear?
Excitement?
Violence?
Chaos?
Order?
Arrogance?
Submission?
Confidence?
Confinement?
Freedom?
Benevolence?
Level Three: Identify the
relationships
to the rest of the text:
repetition [similarity, analogy, recurrence, echo, parallelism]
contrast [incongruity, antithesis, opposition, tension]
shift [turn, transformation, alteration]
juxtaposition [contiguity, adjacency]
© 2008 Michael Degen, Ph.D. (adapted by Jennifer Cullen, Westwood High School)
The association
may be part of a larger
Interpretive
Perspective /
CLAIM about:
Tone
Attitude
Voice
Atmosphere
Character
Thematic idea
Ethical appeal
Logical appeal
Emotional appeal
Aristotle’s Topics:
definition, comparison,
consequence
How to Connect Rhetorical Choices to Meaning
NOTE: In general, a connection of device to meaning should be 3-5 sentences long. The templates below are
a starting place; you will eventually learn to vary them to suit your purposes. A connection must
articulate the meaning a device suggests and HOW this suggestion is achieved.
Diction


Identify the grammatical unit (phrase, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.) and provide the context
in which it appears in the text. Consider connotation as well as denotation. Do NOT write: The
writer uses diction. That’s like saying: The writer uses words.
Connect the diction to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original
insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The phrase* ____________________________ used to describe/identify__________________________________
conveys _______________________ since / because / in that ___________________________________________
______________. This is significant because _______________________________________________________.
* or the noun, verb, adjective, adverb
Example:
The phrase, “a thin beard of ivy,” used to describe Jay Gatsby’s mansion conveys both intrigue and inexperience.
Since the ivy is “thin,” Fitzgerald suggests a wealth without lineage, newly formed and barely veiled; yet, the ivy as
a “beard” suggests a worldly desire to conceal. This is significant because through the description of his mansion,
Gatsby is portrayed as both ingénue and chameleon, alerting the reader to the protagonist’s dual and perhaps
contradictory nature.
Syntax


Identify the syntactical choice the author has made and provide the context in which it appears in
the text. Do NOT write: The writer uses syntax. Since syntax refers to the order and structure of
words, phrases, etc, it always exists – even if you do not find it noteworthy.
Connect the syntax to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original
insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The ________________________________ function(s) to ____________________________________
____________________________________________________________________. This structure
supports the author’s purpose to _________________________________________________________.
Example:
Gatsby’s interrupted sentences dramatize his nervousness and hesitation as he discusses his upcoming
meeting with Daisy at Nick’s bungalow. Stuttering, “Why, I thought – why, look here, old sport, you
don’t make very much money, do you,” Gatsby reveals his true vulnerability and weakness showing a
stark contrast to the “greatness” that has been established in the early chapters of the novel. Fitzgerald
continues to reveal chinks in Gatsby’s armor as the novel progresses preparing the reader for protagonist’s
ultimate fall.
Helpful hint:
Some other examples of purposeful syntactical choices an author might make: parallelism, anaphora,
rhetorical question, appositives, polysyndeton, asyndeton, prepositional phrases, etc. According to
Jeff Sommers and Max Morenberg, authors of The Writer’s Options, appositives define, summarize, and
clarify. Prepositional phrases may elaborate and clarify by indicating how, where, when, why.
Imagery
(word pictures appealing to one of the 6 senses (visual, auditory, gustatory, olfactory, tactile, kinesthetic)
– if you can’t identify which one, it isn’t a valid example of imagery)
 Identify the image and provide the context in which it appears in the text.
 Connect the image to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original
insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The image of ______________________________ depicts a (picture, sense, state, etc.) of __________
_____________________________ because the reader (sees, envisions, realizes) that ______________
___________________________________________________________________________________.
This is significant because ______________________________________________________________.
Example:
The image of an “argument . . . pull[ing]” Nick back to the party “as if with ropes” conveys his helpless
struggle to get away from the gathering in Tom and Myrtle’s apartment at the same time that it dramatizes
his fascination with the inebriated and adulterous events that are occurring. The reader can see that much
as ropes confine, restrain, and render one helpless, Nick, due perhaps to a lack of experience or a flawed
moral code, remains discomfited yet seems unable to confront or reject the lies and pretenses of the party
guests. This is significant because the reader must question Nick’s declaration that he is tolerant and
honest.
Figurative Language: Metaphor or Simile


Identify the metaphor or simile and provide the context in which it appears in the text.
Connect the metaphor or simile to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide
an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The subject of (x) _____________________ is compared to (y) ____________________. This is fitting
because (x) _______________________ and (y) ______________________ share these characteristics:
(a) ____________________________________ and (b) ______________________________________.
This is significant because ______________________________________________________________._
Example:
In his “I Have a Dream” speech, Martin Luther King, Jr. compares the condition of poverty to a “lonely
island.” This is a fitting comparison because poverty and a lonely island share these characteristics: (a)
isolation and alienation from the “vast ocean of material prosperity” which surrounds them and (b) both
are small, singled out, vulnerable, and surrounded by something they don’t possess. This comparison
causes the audience to consider the tangible social barriers created by an invisible financial limitation to
feel sympathy for the isolated poor.
Figurative Language: Personification
(a figure of speech in which animals, abstract ideas, or inanimate things are referred to as if they were human)


Identify the animal, abstract idea, or inanimate thing and provide the context in which it appears in
the text. Identify the human characteristic that is ascribed to it.
Connect the effect of the personification to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary.
Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
In _______________________________, ___________________is personified as possessing the human
characteristic(s) of ___________________________________________ . The author employs
personification in order to___________________________________________________________.
Example:
"Today, we begin a new chapter in the history of Louisiana. I've said throughout the campaign that there are two
entities that have the most to fear from us winning this election. One is corruption and the other is incompetence.
If you happen to see either of them, let them know the party is over."
-- Bobby Jindal, Louisiana Governor-Elect victory Speech (as posted on americanrhetoric.com)
In Bobby Jindal’s victory speech, the abstract ideas of corruption and incompetence are personified as
possessing human form and consciousness. The governor-elect suggests that members of his audience
might encounter or “see” them and should inform them that their “party” is over. Through this
characterization, Jindal simultaneously emphasizes his strength as a leader and sends a strong message,
without naming specific perpetrators, that those who may possess those qualities will be driven out of the
state’s government.
Figurative Language: Hyperbole
(deliberate exaggeration used to heighten effect or create humor – remember that this is a figure of speech not
meant to be interpreted literally – e.g., I’m so hungry I could eat a horse.)



Identify what is being exaggerated and provide the context in which it appears in the text.
Connect the effect of the hyperbole to the meaning of this text. Avoid generic commentary.
Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The deliberate exaggeration of _________________________________ serves to express ____________
________________________. Through this heightened image, the reader_________________________.
Example:
From Robert Frost’s poem, “After Apple-Picking”
For I have had too much
Of apple-picking: I am overtired
Of the great harvest I myself desired.
There were ten thousand fruit to touch,
Cherish in hand, lift sown, and not let fall.
In Frost’s poem, “After Apple-Picking,” the speaker deliberately exaggerates the number of apples in
order to emphasize his shift from excitement and desire to his extreme weariness during the harvest. The
speaker has had “too much” as a result of the “ten thousand” fruit to touch. Through this image, the
reader comes to understand that the speaker is not only weary of body, but is also “overtired” in spirit as
well.
[Example taken from A Contemporary Guide to Literary Terms by Edwin J. Barton and Glenda A. Hudson (Houghton Mifflin, 2004)]
Symbol


Identify both the concrete and abstract meanings of the symbol and provide the context in which it
appears in the text.
Connect the symbol to specific characters in this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an
original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The ________________________________ symbolizes ________________________________
concrete
abstract
for _______________________________ because it represents __________________________
_________________________Through this symbol, the author ____________________________.
Example:
The pearls Daisy Buchanan rescues from the trash and subsequently wears “around her neck” symbolize
her ultimate choice of money over love because they represent Tom’s vast wealth (they were “valued at
three hundred and fifty thousand dollars”) in contrast to Gatsby’s avowal of love, symbolized by the letter
she “wouldn’t let go of.” By highlighting Daisy’s donning of the pearls, Fitzgerald comments on the
shallow and misguided values of the 20th Century American, one who pursues the elusive “dream” instead
of concrete relationships.
Detail


Identify the detail and provide the context in which it appears in the text.
Describe the function of the inclusion of that detail in this text. Avoid generic commentary.
Provide an original insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The detail of _____________________________________ conveys
_________________________________ since/because/in that _________________________________.
The author wants the reader to see ______________________________ because/so that ____________
Example:
The detail of the string of polo ponies Tom Buchanan brought east with him from Chicago conveys his
vast wealth and hedonism. Moving the ponies is expensive and unnecessary, suggesting that Tom does
not need to concern himself with cost but does concern himself with appearing more powerful than his
peers. Fitzgerald wants the reader to see Tom as spoiled and self-indulgent so that Tom will appear
distasteful even before the reader learns of his current affair.
Allusion


Identify the allusion (indirect reference by an author to another text, historical occurrence, or to
myths and legends) and provide the context in which it appears in the text.
Describe the function of the allusion in this text. Avoid generic commentary. Provide an original
insight. Pay attention to your own diction. It enhances your analysis.
Model:
The author or speaker alludes to ___________________________________ in order to
___________________________________. Through this reference, the reader connects
_______________________ to _________________ and can more fully understands the author’s purpose
to __________________________________.
Example:
“For us, they fought and died, in places like Concord and Gettysburg; Normandy and Khe Sahn.”
Barack Obama
Obama’s allusions to Concord, Gettysburg, Normandy, and Khe Sahn offer examples of struggles that
Americans have faced in the past which parallel the unique struggles Americans believe they are currently
facing with our economy, environment, and world conflict. Even though the references are meant to
show these struggles, the president’s desired effect is to provide hope and resolve to the listener since
these battles resulted in victories for America. Citizens are reminded that they can be victorious in our
modern struggles.
Examples of “generic” commentary: gets the reader’s attention, draws the reader in, etc.
Biblical Allusion
(With thanks to Philip H. Templet)
Absalom
Archetype of a rebellious son, especially one who meets a tragic end. He was the third son
of King David, remarkable for his beauty, beloved by his father and his people. He sided
with his father’s enemy and was slain by Joab after his hair entangled in a tree while
trying to escape.
Abraham
Archetypal patriarch. One of the most important figures of the Old Testament (OT),
Abraham is usually considered the father of the Hebrew people and the ancestor of all
Jews. He is referred to as “the father of many nations” in Genesis 17:5.
Abraham’s supreme test
An ultimate challenge or sacrifice. The reference is to God’s command to Abraham to
sacrifice his only son, Isaac, as a burned offering on Mount Moriah. Abraham readily
agreed to comply and was about to kill Isaac with his knife when God, satisfied that
Abraham’s faith was genuine, intervened by providing a ram caught in a thicket to take
Isaac’s place (Genesis 22:1-19).
Adam’s Curse
Ironic colloquialism for work. “In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread.” (Genesis
3:19)
Angel of Death
Personification of death. The angel of death is usually assumed of biblical origin, being
identified as Azrael or Michael.
Ahab
Archetype of an arrogant, wicked tyrant. Husband to the evil Jezebel. He colluded in the
introduction of pagan worship and was subsequently warned by God’s prophet Elijah that
he faced divine vengeance and the fall of his dynasty. Ahab was killed in battle and his
blood was licked up by dogs.
Antichrist
A person who opposes Christ or is the implacable enemy of All that is good. The
Antichrist is described in the Bible as the enemy of Christ (1 John 2:18-21), who in the
final battle by Christ in the Second Coming.
Apocalypse
A catastrophic or climatic event involving total destruction. From the Greek word
meaning “to disclose.”
Babylon
A city, place, society, etc., notorious for corruption or depravity.
Baptism by fire
An arduous initiation or introduction to something.
Beelzebub
A devil, demon, or very wicked person. From the Hebrew meaning “lord of the heavenly
habitation”. Later reinterpreted as meaning “lord of the flies.”
by the rivers of Babylon
In exile from a cherished by far-distant place or time. From Psalm 137:1, in which the
Israelites in exile in Babylon lamented their lost homeland Zion: “By the rivers of
Babylon, there we sat, yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion.”
Blood will have blood
Violence breeds violence (Genesis 9:6).
Book of life
Life itself, experience of living, or a record of how life has been spent. The original Book
of life, in which the names and deeds of those who will be saved on Judgment Day are
listed, is described in Rev. 3:5, 20:12-15, 21:27.
Cain and Abel
Archetype to brothers whose relationship ends in violence. (Genesis 4:1-16)
Children of light
Those who are enlightened or otherwise alive to virtue, culture, faith, etc.
City on the hill
Utopia; an ideal community or shining example of some kind.
Clay in potter’s hand
Easily led; malleable; pliable.
Corinthian
Licentious, dissolute. The lax moral of the inhabitants of this city were widely known in
the ancient world.
Death, where is thy sting?
Death is nothing to fear. (1 Corinthians 15:55, “O grave, where is thy victory?”)
David and Bathsheba
A guilty or treacherous love affair. (2 Samuel 11&12)
Diaspora
The dispersion of people through migration or forced removal.
Doubting Thomas
A person who remains unconvinced about something until firm proof is proffered.
East of Eden
A featureless, desolate place or situation; a place of wandering or exile.
Epiphany
The revelatory appearance, or realization; from the Greek manifestation. In the Bible, the
presentation of the infant Christ to the Wise Men.
Esau
A person who allows himself to be parted with something of value without receiving much
in return.
Feet of clay
A fundamental character flaw, especially one that is not immediately obvious in someone
or something that is otherwise greatly admired.
Flaming sword
A highly effective weapon of some kind, especially one used to keep a person at bay.
Four Horsemen
War, Pestilence (or strife), Famine, and Death. War rides a white horse, Pestilence rides a
red horse, Famine rides a black horse, and Death rides a pale horse.
Gabriel
Messenger of God.
genesis
A beginning; the origin of something.
Gog and Magog
Godless forces that threaten the end of the world through war. Gog and Magog are
identified in Revelation 20:8 as the personification of nations as the farthest ends of the
earth in the final apocalyptic conflict between good and evil.
Golden calf
Money, riches, or material value.
Goliath
A formidable opponent or obstacle.
Good Samaritan
A person who kindly and selflessly helps a stranger in distress or difficulty.
Grain of mustard seed
Anything that has small beginning but grows into something much larger.
Inherit the wind
To provoke trouble, especially to bring trouble down on one’s own head. (Proverbs
11:29)
in the lion’s den
A person who is in a position of great danger. The phrase alludes to the biblical story of
Daniel who is accused of defying the rulers of Babylon and is thrown into a cage full of
hungry lions (Daniel 6:16). Daniel’s courage and faith is rewarded when God saves his
life by sealing the lions’ so they could not eat him.
Jacob’s ladder
A ladder of rope or cable used to board a boat or ship. Originally, a ladder connecting
heaven and earth, having rungs representing the victims.
Jezebel
A shameless, immoral woman. Jezebel was the daughter of Ethbaal, the king of Tyre and
Sidon, and the wife of Ahab, king of Israel. Her evil deeds included the murder of the
Lord’s prophets and their replacement by the prophets of Baal and the attempted murder
of Elijah. Elijah foretold a bad end for Jezebel with the words “The dogs shall eat Jezebel
by the wall of Jezebel” (1 Kings 21:23), and eventually Jezebel was hurled out of a palace
window on orders of King Jehu after she adorned herself and tried to seduce him: Her
blood spattered the wall and the body was torn apart by dogs (2 Kings 9:30-37)
John the Baptist
A person who preaches or speaks out in defiance of hostile opinion, especially urges
Christian repentance. “…voice crying in the wilderness”
Jonah
A person who brings bad luck wherever he or she goes. The biblical person was a prophet
who was blamed for the storm that lashed the ship in which he was fleeing from God’s
command to go and preach repentance to the people of Nineveh. (Jonah 1:4-1)
Judas
A traitor; a hypocrite. He betrayed Christ to the Romans for thirty pieces of silver.
Judas Kiss
An act of betrayal disguised as a demonstration of friendship.
Judgment of Solomon
Great wisdom, as required to solve a particularly difficult dispute or problem. (1 Kings
3:16-28) The allusion is to a biblical dispute by two prostitutes who were both claiming
possession of the same child. Having heard their cases, Solomon calmly proposed cutting
the child in half so that the women could have equal shares; the woman who showed
anxiety about this proposal proved she was the real mother and was awarded custody of
the child.
Lamb to the slaughter
A defenseless victim; someone who is apparently too naïve or powerless to defend his or
her interests, especially one who ventures into danger without complaining or protesting.
Land of Beulah
The promised land. A land of ease and plenty; the land flowing with milk and honey.
(Isaiah 62:4)
Land of Nod
The realm of sleep or sleep itself. The land East of Eden to which Cain was exiled.
(Genesis 4:16)
Last Trump
Judgment Day. The signal for the end of the world will be a blast on Gabriel’s trumpet,
when the dead will rise for judgment: “We shall not all sleep, but we shall all be changed,
in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, at the last trump.” (1 Corinthians 15:51-52)
Lion shall lie down with the
lamb
Lazarus
Idyllic view of a future in which natural enemies will be reconciled and live in peace.
Leviathan
A vast or immensely powerful force or thing, especially a massive organization, state
bureaucracy, etc. The name comes from a monstrous beast mentioned at several points in
the Bible; for one Job 41:1.
Lot’s wife
Archetype of an individual who brings about his or her own downfall through
disobedience (Genesis 19:26).
Astrologers. Three men from the East, who according to Matthew 2:1, came to Bethlehem
with gifts of gold, frankincense, and myrrh to celebrate the birth of Christ.
Magi
A person who unexpectedly emerges revived after dying or renewed after apparently
ceasing to have anything further to offer (John 11:1-44).
mark of Cain
A brand or other distinguishing mark that bears witness to some past crime or misdeed.
My cup runneth over
Good things coming in abundance (Psalm 23:5-6).
Patience of Job
Endless patience in the face of great difficulty or suffering.
Pearls before swine
Something good or valuable that is offered to or in the possession of a person who cannot
appreciate it. “Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, nether cast ye pearls before
swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and turn again to rend you.” (Matthew
7:16)
Pharisee
A self-righteous or hypocritical person, especially one who insists on legalistically and
slavishly observing the rules, regardless of the intent behind them.
Philistine
An uncultured, ignorant person. Originally the Philistines were a warlike non-Semitic
people who in biblical times inhabited ancient Philistia in close and often hostile
proximity to the Jews. Goliath (1 Samuel 17) and Delilah (Judges 16) were Philistines.
Pilate washed his
hands/Wash one’s hands of
A person who refuses to take responsibility for his or her actions; a hypocrite. Alludes to
the biblical account of Pilate washing his hands in public as an expression of the fact that
he refused to accept any blame for Christ’s death.
Potiphar’s wife
A woman who gets revenge on a man who has rejected her advances by falsely accusing
him of rape (Genesis 37:36).
Prodigal son
A person who returns after a lengthy absence, having squandered his money. (Luke
15:11-32)
Promised land
A place or situation believed to offer great happiness, fulfillment, and security. In the OT
the land of Canaan was promised by God to Abraham and his descendents, and thus
Canaan came to be referred to as the Promised Land. (Genesis 12:7)
Queen of Sheba
Legendary queen whose name is sometimes applied pejoratively to a woman who is
suspected of dressing or otherwise behaving in an inappropriately grand manner. (1
Kings 10:1-13, Chronicles 9:1-9, 12) Sometimes the queen’s name symbolizes
vanquished pride (“there was no more spirit in her”).
Rising of Lazarus
A person who unexpectedly emerges revived after dying or renewed after ceasing to have
anything to offer. The allusion is described in the New Testament in John 11:1-44.
Lazarus is raised from the dead upon the entreaties of his sisters Mary and Martha. Christ
recited the words “I am the resurrection, and the life, and he who believeth in me, though
he were dead, yet shall live, and whosoever liveth and believeth in me shall never die”
and when the stone that sealed the tomb of Lazarus was rolled away, the dead man rose
and emerged at Christ’s command.
Reap what you sow
The benefit you receive depends on what you have put in. The phrase comes from Paul’s
letter to the Galatians: “God is not mocked: for whatever a man soweth, that shall he also
reap.” (Galations 6:7)
Road to Damascus
A process of revelation resulting in fundamental change of viewpoint or opinion
(typically the result of a sudden, even miraculous insight). (Acts 9:1-9, 22:1-21, and 26:123)
The archetype of a devoted, loyal woman. A Moabite widow, Ruth promised never to
desert her mother-in-law; “In treat me not to leave thee, or to return from following after
thee: for whither thou goest, I will go; and where thou lodgest: thy people shall be my
people, and thy God my God” (Ruth 1:16).
Ruth
Salome
A seductive, deceitful temptress. The biblical Salome, the step-daughter of Herod Antipas,
who demanded the head of John the Baptist: She was promised whatever she wanted in
payment for her dancing before her stepfather.
Samson
A person of exceptional physical strength. The allusion to the biblical Samson, a judge of
Israel, who was renowned for his great strength. He was brought low, by Delilah who had
his eyes gouged out and cut off his long hair on which his strength depended.
Shake off the dust from/on
one’s feet
To leave somewhere or disassociate oneself from someone as a result of the treatment one
has received (Matthew 10:14).
Sodom and Gomorrah
A place that is notorious for depravity and vice, especially of a sexual nature. Sodom and
Gomorrah are described in the book of Genesis as cities of corruption, and for this reason
they are both destroyed by fire and brimstone sent by God (Genesis 19:24-25).
Stolen waters are sweet
Pleasures acquired illegally or through otherwise dubious means are all more enjoyable.
“Stolen waters are sweet, and bread eaten in secret is pleasant.” (Proverbs 9:17)
Straight and narrow
The honest and moral path. Matthew 7:13-14 warns that it is much easier to follow the
path to eternal condemnation than it is to take the path that leads to salvation.
Thirty pieces of silver
The price of an act of betrayal. The allusion is to the 30 shekels of silver that was paid by
the priests to Judas in exchange for information about Christ’s whereabouts (Matthew
26:14-16).
Tree of knowledge
Adam and Eve disregard God’s command not to eat from the Tree of Knowledge of Good
and Evil that leads to their expulsion from Paradise. Today the tree is sometimes
interpreted as a symbol of the truth gained at the expense of loss of innocence.
Tree of life
The tree of life is “in the midst of the garden” of Paradise (Genesis 2:9). (Generally
interpreted as a symbol of God’s gift of life.)
Two edge sword
Referring to something that is open to two different interpretations, such as an argument
or policy that has an effect against both parties. “For the word of God is quick and
powerful, and sharper than any two-edge sword, piercing even to the dividing asunder of
soul and spirit and of joints and marrow, and discerner of the thoughts and intents of the
heart.” (Hebrews 4:12)
Vanities of vanities
An act or belief that is considered entirely futile. In its original biblical context, the word
suggested rather the notion of meaningless, emptiness, futility, or idolatry. “Vanity of
vanities, saith the Preacher, Vanity of vanities, all is vanity.” (Ecclesiasted 1:2)
Voice crying in the
wilderness
A lone voice of protest raised against prevailing opinion, typically one expressing views
that meet with an indifferent or openly hostile reception. The original voice in the
wilderness was that of John the Baptist, who preached the coming of Christ (Matthew
3:1-3).
Wages of sin
Suffering of some kind as punishment for the sins that a person has committed. “The
wages of sin is death; but the gift is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord” (Romans
6:23).
To achieve the apparently impossible and emerge unscathed. (Mark 6:45-56).
Walk on water
walls of Jericho
A seemingly invincible obstacle that is miraculously overcome without a blow being
struck. Joshua describes how he and his forces bearing the Ark of the Covenant,
surrounded Jericho in six days. On the seventh day, the people heard the sound of the
trumpet and the people shouted with a great shout, that the wall fell flat, so the people to
the city. (Joshua 6:1-20)
Wise as serpents and
harmless as doves
Shrewd but innocent. “Behold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of wolves: be ye
therefore wise as serpents, and harmless as doves” (Matthew 10:16).
Witch of Endor
Archetypal witch or medium with supernatural powers. The reference is to the sorceress
of Endor, who (according to 1 Samuel 28:3-25) on command of King Saul summoned up
the spirit of the defeat and death in battle against the Philistines.
Wolf in sheep’s clothing
A person or thing that appears to be harmless but is masking it real, harmful nature.
Christ condemns the false prophets. “Beware the false prophets, which come to you in
sheep’s clothing, but inwardly they are raving wolves.” (Matthew 7:15)
Worshiping the golden calf
In modern usage, this phrase describes people who place undue emphasis on the pursuit
of material values. (Exodus 32:1-14)
Zion
The name of the hill on which the city of Jerusalem was first built and sometimes called
David’s city; symbolically it represents the church of God or the kingdom of heaven.
Sources:
King James Version of the Bible
Manser, Martin H. and David H. Pickering, Ass. Ed.
The Facts on File Dictionary of Classical and Biblical
Allusions. Martin H. Manswer, USA, 2003.
Writing Errors to Avoid
#1: Incorrect Punctuation of Two Independent Clauses
(An independent clause has a subject and a verb and can stand alone as a sentence.)
Good writers know that correct punctuation is important to writing clear sentences. If you misuse a mark of
punctuation, you risk confusing your reader and appearing careless. Notice how the placement of commas
significantly affects the meaning of these sentences:
Mr. Jones, says Ms. Moore, is a boring old fool.
Mr. Jones says Ms. Moore is a boring old fool.
Writers often combine independent clauses in a single compound sentence to emphasize the relationship between
ideas. The punctuation of compound sentences varies depending upon how you connect the clauses.
The rules are:
(a) Separate independent clauses with a comma when using a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, for, nor, so,
yet).
(b) Separate independent clauses with a semi-colon when no coordinating conjunction is used.
(c) Separate independent clauses with a semi-colon when using a conjunctive adverb (e.g., however, therefore,
thus, consequently, finally, nevertheless).
Examples of Correct Punctuation, Rule a:
1. We all looked worse than usual, for we had stayed up studying for the exam.
2. This room is unbelievably hot, and I think that I am going to pass out.
Examples of Correct Punctuation, Rule b:
1. We all looked worse than usual; we had stayed up all night studying for the exam.
2. This room is unbelievably hot; I think I am going to pass out.
Examples of Correct Punctuation, Rule c:
1. We all looked worse than usual; however, we were relieved we had studied.
2. The discussion is really interesting; nevertheless, I think I am going to pass out.
#2: Misuse of the Apostrophe
Use the apostrophe to indicate possession and to mark omitted letters in contractions. Writers often misuse apostrophes when
forming plurals and possessives. The basic rule is quite simple: use the apostrophe to indicate
possession, not a plural. Yes, the exceptions to the rule may seem confusing: hers has no apostrophe, and it's is not
possessive. Nevertheless, with a small amount of attention, you can learn the rules and the exceptions of apostrophe use.
Possessives
 Form the possessive case of a singular noun by adding 's (even if the word ends in s).
Hammurabi's code, Dickens's last novel, James's cello

Form the possessive case of a plural noun by adding an apostrophe after the final letter if it is an s or by adding 's if
the final letter is not an s.
the students' desks, the children's toys

Remember: the apostrophe never designates the plural form of a noun. A common error is the use of the apostrophe
to form a non-possessive plural. Compare the following correct sentences:
The student's disk was missing.
Several students' disks were missing.
The students searched for their missing disks.

Possessive pronouns, such as yours, hers, its, and ours, take no apostrophe.
The decision is yours.

Indefinite pronouns, such as anyone, everybody, no one, somebody, use the singular possessive form.
Somebody's dog stayed in our suite last night.
Contractions
 The apostrophe is used to mark omitted letters in contractions.
(Note: contractions are often considered too informal for academic writing.)

Avoid the dreadful it's/its confusion.
It's is a contraction for it is. It's is never a possessive.
Its is the possessive for it.
As Professors Strunk and White remind us in Elements of Style,
“It's a wise dog that scratches its own fleas” (1).
#3: Pronoun Problems
Pronouns are useful as substitutes for nouns, but a poorly chosen pronoun can obscure the meaning of a sentence.
Common pronoun errors include:
 Unclear Pronoun Reference
A pronoun must refer to a specific noun (the antecedent). Ambiguous pronoun reference creates confusing sentences.
Poor Example: Writers should spend time thinking about their arguments to make sure they are not superficial.
(Unclear antecedent: who or what are superficial?)
If a whiff of ambiguity exists, use a noun:
A key difference between banking crises of today and yesterday is that today’s crises have greater global impact.
 Vague Subject Pronoun
Pronouns such as it, there, and this often make weak subjects.
Poor Example: Pope Gregory VII forced Emperor Henry IV to wait three days in the snow at Canossa before granting him an
audience. It was a symbolic act. (To what does it refer? Forcing the Emperor to wait? The waiting? The
granting of the audience? The audience? The entire sentence?)
Use a pronoun as subject only when its antecedent is crystal clear.
Aristotle and the Appeals of Rhetoric
Logos, Ethos, Pathos
Logical Appeals- (logos)
Logical appeals are the reasons given for supporting a particular argument. Examples of logical appeals include the use of
evidence, facts and figures, references to current events, and testimony. Effective logical appeals depend upon the ability of the
writer to connect the multiple examples of support to each other in meaningful ways.
 Incorporate inductive or deductive reasoning
 Allude to history, great literature, or mythology
 Provide reputable testimony
 Provide evidence, facts
 Cite authorities
 Quote research or statistics
 Theorize cause and effect
 Argue that something meets a given definition
Example:
We gotta get these nets. They’re coated with an insecticide and cost between $4 and $6. You need about $10, all told,
to get them shipped and installed. Some nets can cover a family of four. And they last four years. If we can cut the
spread of disease, 10 bucks means a kid might get to live. Make it $20 and more kids are saved.
Taken from Rick Reilly’s “Nothing But Nets”
Ethical Appeals- (ethos)
Ethical appeals are attempts by the speaker/writer to make connections to the audience by appearing knowledgeable,
reasonable, ethical, etc. A writer is able to make an effective argument only when readers have no reason to doubt the writer’s
character on a given topic. Writers who fail to acknowledge other points of view, exaggerate, or assume a tone of disrespect
have difficulty making ethical appeals to readers.
 Make the audience believe the writer is trustworthy
 Demonstrate the writer carefully conducted research
 Demonstrate that the writer knows the audience and respects them
 Convince the audience that the writer is reliable and knowledgeable
 Use first person plural pronouns (“we” and “us”) to establish a relationship with the audience
Example:
My Fellow Clergymen:
While confined here in Birmingham city jail, I came across your recent statement calling my present activities unwise
and untimely,…since I feel that you are men of genuine good will and that your criticisms are sincerely set forth, I
want to answer your statement in what I hope will be patient and reasonable terms.
Taken from Martin Luther King, Jr. -- “Letter from Birmingham Jail”
Emotional Appeals- (pathos)
Emotional appeals reach the reader by activating the reader’s emotions. Often writers make emotional appeals by including
sensory details, especially imagery. Calling upon the reader’s pleasant memories, nostalgia, anger, or fear are frequent
emotional appeals found in argumentative texts. The presence of “charged words” (references to religious doctrine or patriotic
ideas) in an argumentative text represents an attempt at an emotional appeal by the writer.
 Include language that involves the senses and heightens emotional responses
 Reference bias or prejudice
 Include a personal anecdote
 Appeal to the audience’s physical, psychological, or social needs
 Create figurative language
 Experiment with informal language
Example:
Put it this way: Let’s say your little Justin’s Kickin’ Kangaroos have a big youth soccer tournament on Saturday.
There are 15 kids on the soccer team, 10 teams in the tourney. And there are 20 of these tournaments going on all
over town. Suddenly, every one of these kids gets chills and fever, then starts throwing up and then gets short of
breath. And in 10 days, they’re all dead of malaria.
Taken from Rick Reilly’s “Nothing But Nets”
David Joliffe’s Rhetorical Framework
Exigence
Audience
Purpose
Logos
Ethos
Pathos
Organization/Whole Text Structure
Diction
Syntax
Imagery
Figurative
Language
Types of Essay Prompts Now in Use for the AP English Language and Composition Exam
(created by Kevin McDonald, Edmond, OK)
Analysis Prompts: These place students in the role of analyst, asking students to take a position on “why” an author
wrote a text (his/her purpose) and “how” do students know this (the rhetorical strategies used).
1) Direct Address – Speech, Letter, Sermon, etc. Anything with a stated, specific audience. These texts
normally ask the reader/listener to “do” something.
2) Indirect Address/Personal Reflection – This style of writing is often introspective and reflective. The piece
is not lacking a target audience, but the target audience is often implied through the context of the passage
as opposed to expressly stated. These texts normally ask the reader to “believe” something.
3) Compare and Contrast – These prompts take the above concepts and then juxtapose pieces that are either
similar in style or in content. This style of question may move into “evaluation” if the purpose of the texts
is revealed in the prompt (for example, if students are told that the passages are marriage proposals, their
purpose is rather evident; therefore, students may be asked to analyze how each proposal was made, and
which might be more effective).
Argument Prompts: These place students in the role of rhetorician, asking students to take a position on an ethical
or moral dilemma, expecting students to provide appropriate evidence to support his/her position.
1) Create Your Own Argument – There are different forms of this question, but essentially the students are
provided with a prompt that they are asked to use as a basis for creating their own argument. Close reading
skills and strong comprehension are necessary, but rhetorical analysis of the piece itself is not. Instead,
these function as a “springboard” into the students own thoughts on a given topic, which they must present
in a persuasive fashion.
2) “Agree, Disagree, or Qualify” – Students must read and evaluate a piece of writing that is opinionated
assertion, take a stance, and then provide evidence for their understanding of the topic. The “ADQ” phrase
is not always used, but the text development committee has adopted it for discussion purposes. A similar
set of descriptors will be provided in the prompt (“defend, challenge, or qualify” for example).
3) Develop a Position – Synthesis-like in nature, these prompts will give students the opinions of typically
famous thinkers/philosophers on some topic that is debatable in nature, then ask students to develop their
own position on the issue.
Synthesis Prompts:
1) This prompt clearly combines both analysis and argument as students are presented with an assertion and
several texts (both print and non-print) that they must read and analyze in an attempt to evaluate assertions.
Students will have to provide evidence for their evaluation based on the information they find in the
sources, as well as information they may already possess. Students will have to reference some, but not all,
of the sources for support within their writing.
These categories are created from my observations, although I have received feedback from the “AP Electronic Discussion
Group” that suggested agreement.
RUBRIC (GENERIC) FOR AP ASSIGNMENTS
9:
Papers earning a score of 9 meet the criteria for 8 papers and, in addition, are especially full or apt in their analysis,
sophisticated in their explanation and argument, or impressive in their control of language.
8:
Papers earning a score of 8 respond to the prompt effectively, answering all parts of the question completely and
demonstrating clear understanding of the passage; recognizes complexities of attitude or tone; demonstrates stylistic maturity
through an effective command of sentence structure, diction, and organization; insightful thesis clearly linked to the evidence
or assertions presented; seamless incorporation of quotations; consistent focus
7:
Papers earning a score of 7 fit the description of 6 papers, but provide a more complete analysis, explanation, or
argument OR demonstrate a more mature prose style.
6:
Papers earning a score of 6 respond to the prompt adequately, accurately answering all parts of the question and using
appropriate evidence, but they are less fully or effectively developed than essays in the top range;. discussion of techniques
used in a passage may be less thorough and less specific; well-written in an appropriate style, but with less maturity than the
top papers; demonstrates sufficient control over the elements of writing to present the writer’s ideas clearly; clear, accurate
thesis
5:
Papers earning a score of 5 analyze, explain, or argue in response to the prompt, but do so unevenly, inconsistently, or
insufficiently. The writing may contain lapses in diction or syntax, but it usually conveys the writer’s ideas. May be simplistic,
imprecise, overly general or vague. Organization is attempted, but not fully realized.
4:
Papers earning a score of 4 respond to the prompt inadequately. They may analyze or explain incorrectly, merely
paraphrase, or offer little discussion. The prose generally conveys the writer’s ideas but may suggest immature control of
writing. The writer attempts to answer the question, but does so either inaccurately or without the support of specific,
persuasive evidence; may misinterpret or misrepresent the passage.
3:
Papers earning a score of 3 meet the criteria for a score of 4, but demonstrate less success in analyzing, explaining,
arguing, or providing specific textual evidence. They are less consistent in controlling the elements of writing.
2:
Papers earning a score of 2 demonstrate little success in analyzing, explaining, or arguing. They may misunderstand
the prompt or the passage, offer vague generalizations, substitute simpler tasks such as summarizing the passage or simple
listing rhetorical strategies. The prose often demonstrates consistent weaknesses in writing.
may be unacceptably brief or poorly written on several counts; response lacks clarity
1:
Papers earning a score of 1 meet the criteria for a 2 but are undeveloped, especially simplistic in their explanation and
/or argument, or weak in their control of language.
0:
_:
Indicates an on-topic response that receives no credit, such as one that merely repeats the prompt.
Indicates a blank response or one that is completely off-topic.
8:
6:
4:
2:
Demonstrates competence
Suggests competence
Suggests incompetence
Demonstrates incompetence
5:
Goes in and out like static when you’re trying to tune in a radio station
9 = an enhanced eight
7 = an enhanced six
3 = a diminished four
1 = a diminished 2
UPPER HALF PAPERS employ an “enriched” vocabulary. The writer “does the work” of guiding the reader through effective
organization and fluid syntax.
LOWER HALF PAPERS demonstrate an “impoverished” vocabulary. The reader “does the work” trying to make sense out of
what the writer has written.
AP Scale
Class
Scale
Description
9
95
Impressive and Skillful
8
90
Effective and Meaningful
7
85
Purposeful and Mature
6
80
Adequate and Sufficient
5
75
Inconsistent or Uneven
68
Inadequate
3
65
Weak
2
60
Little Success
1
55
Undeveloped
4
POETRY FOCUS STATEMENT
DEFINITION:
A ONE TO TWO-SENTENCE SUMMARY OF THE NARRATIVE SITUATION, THEME AND TONE OF A POEM.
USE:
AS A POTENTIAL THESIS FOR A FREE-RESPONSE POETRY QUESTION ON THE AP LIT EXAM
CRITICAL ATTRIBUTES
(1)
INCLUDES THE TITLE OF THE POEM AND THE NAME OF THE POET
(2)
IS WRITTEN IN “LITERARY PRESENT TENSE”
(3)
SPECIFIES THE NARRATIVE SITUATION OF THE POEM
(4)
INCLUDES A THOUGHTFUL, BUT CONCISE INDICATION OF THEME
(5)
IDENTIFIES THE TONE(S) OF THE POEM. THESE MAY BE DIFFERING BUT COMPLEMENTARY.
SHIFTS IN TONE MAY BE IDENTIFIED AS WELL.
DIRECTIONS:
1. THE SYNTAX OF POETRY FOCUS STATEMENTS IS COMPOUND OR COMPLEX BECAUSE YOU ARE
ADDRESSING BOTH THE LITERAL (THE NARRATIVE SITUATION) AND THE THEMATIC.
2.
DRAW A STRAIGHT LINE UNDER THE LITERAL PART OF THE STATEMENT. IT SHOULD BE
SUBORDINATED TO THE THEMATIC. THAT IS, IT SHOULD BE FOUND IN THE DEPENDENT CLAUSE.
3.
DRAW A SQUIGGLY LINE UNDER THE THEMATIC PART OF THE STATEMENT. IT SHOULD BE
FOUND IN THE MAIN OR INDEPENDENT CLAUSE.
4.
ARTICULATE YOURSELF IN A SCHOLARLY MANNER. SEE “VERBS FOR LITERARY ANALYSIS” AND
“TONE WORDS” IN THE YELLOW PAGES.