Chapter 5
Motivation at Work
Learning Outcomes
1 Define motivation.
2 Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs.
3 Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.
4 Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.
5 Explain two new ideas in human motivation.
6 Describe the role of inequity in motivation.
7 Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.
8 Describe the cultural differences in motivation.
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1
Learning Outcome
Define motivation.
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Definition of Motivation
the process of arousing and sustaining
goal-directed behavior
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3 GROUPS
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
• Internal
– Suggest that variables within the individual give
rise to motivation and behavior
– Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory
• Process
– Emphasize the nature of the interaction
between the individual and the environment
– Example: Expectancy theory
• External
– Focus on environmental elements to explain
behavior
– Example: Two-factor theory
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Early Philosophers
of Motivational Theories
Max Weber
work contributes to
salvation
Protestant work
ethic
Sigmund Freud
delve into the
unconscious mind to
better understand a
person’s motives and
needs
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Early Philosophers
of Motivational Theories
Adam Smith
“enlightened” selfinterest; that which is in
the best interest and
benefit to the individual
and to other people
Frederick Taylor
founder of
scientific
management;
emphasized
cooperation
between
management
and labor to
enlarge
company
profits
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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
SA
Esteem
Love (Social)
Safety and Security
Physiological
2
Learning Outcome
Explain how Theory X and Theory Y
relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
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Motivational Theories X and Y
Theory X
A set of
assumptions of
how to manage
individuals who
are motivated
by lower order
needs
Theory Y
A set of
assumptions of
how to manage
individuals who
are motivated
by higher order
needs
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Theories Applied to Needs Hierarchy
SA
Esteem
Love (Social)
Safety and Security
Physiological
Theory Y – a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by higher
order needs
Theory X – a set of
assumptions of how to
manage individuals
motivated by lower
order needs
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based
on Theory X
• Naturally indolent
• Lack ambition, dislike responsibility,
and prefer to be led
• Inherently self-centered and
indifferent to organizational needs
• Naturally resistant to change
• Gullible, not bright, ready dupes
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Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957
American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved.
http://www.amanet.org.
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based
on Theory Y
• Passive and resistant behaviors not
inherent; result of organizational
experience
• People possess
– Motivation
– Development potential
– Capacity for assuming responsibility
– Readiness to direct behavior toward
organizational goals
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Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on
Theory Y
Management’s
task—arrange
conditions and
operational methods
so people can
achieve their own
goals by directing
efforts to
organizational goals
Individual
Goals
Organization
Goals
Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957.
Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York,
NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.
© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
SA
Growth
Esteem
Love (Social)
Relatedness
Safety and Security
Existence
Physiological
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3
Learning Outcome
Discuss the needs for achievement,
power, and affiliation.
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McClelland’s Theory
3
main categories of needs
• Achievement
• Power
• Affiliation
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McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Achievement
[Need for Achievement]
a manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns individuals’
issues of excellence, competition,
challenging goals, persistence,
and overcoming difficulties
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McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Power
[Need for Power]
a manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to make an
impact on others, influence
others, change people or events,
and make a difference in life
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McClelland’s Need Theory:
Need for Affiliation
[Need for Affiliation]
a manifest (easily perceived)
need that concerns an
individual’s need to establish
and maintain warm, close,
intimate relationships with
other people
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3 Motivational Need Theories
Maslow
McGregor
Self-actualization
Theory Y
Alderfer
Growth
Esteem
Higher
self
Order
interpersonal
Needs
Belongingness
(social and love)
Physiological
Need for
Achievement
Need for
Power
Relatedness
Safety and Security
Theory X
Lower
interpersonal
Order
physical
Needs
McClelland
Existence
Need for
Affiliation
4
Learning Outcome
Describe the two-factor theory of
motivation.
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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• Hygiene factor
• Motivation factor
Both are work conditions, but
each addresses a different part
of an employee’s experience
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HYGIENE FACTOR
maintenance factor
contributes to employee’s feeling not
dissatisfied
contributes to absence of complaints
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Motivation Factor
job enrichment
leads to superior performance
& effort
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Motivation–Hygiene Theory
• Company policy and
administration
• Supervision
• Interpersonal relations
• Working conditions
• Salary
• Status
• Security
Hygiene factors avoid
job dissatisfaction
Motivation factors
increase job satisfaction
•
•
•
•
•
•
Achievement
Achievement recognition
Work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
• Salary?
SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human. (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.
Motivation–Hygiene Combinations
High M
Low M
high motivation
low motivation
few complaints
few complaints
high
motivation
low
motivation
Low H
many complaints many complaints
High H
(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)
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Questions on Herzberg’s
Theory
• Is salary a hygiene or a motivational
factor?
• What role do individual differences
(age, sex, social status, education)
play?
• What role do intrinsic job factors
(work flow process) play?
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5
Learning Outcome
Explain two new ideas in human
motivation.
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New Ideas : Eustress, Strength, Hope
• Eustress – healthy, normal stress
Opportunities
Obstacles
Challenges
Barriers
Energy
Frustration
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New Ideas :
Positive Energy and Full Engagement
Management of Energy
Build Positive
Energy
Expend
Energy
Renewal
and
Recovery
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Beyond the Book:
Intrinsic Motivation
A recent study examined the effects of job
demands, job control, and job social support
on fatigue and intrinsic motivation among a
sample group of 555 nurses.
The study found no correlation between job
social support and fatigue, but higher levels
of support produced elevated levels of
intrinsic motivation regardless of jobdemands and job-control levels.
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6
Learning Outcome
Describe the role of inequity in
motivation.
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Social Exchange & Equity Theory
• Equity theory
focuses on
individual–
environment
interaction
• Concerned with
social processes
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rights reserved.
Individual–Organizational
Exchange Relationship
Contributions Demands
Organization
Individual
• Organizational goals
• Departmental objectives
• Job tasks
• Physiological needs
• Security needs
• Physical needs
• Company status
• Benefits
• Income
• Developmental potential
• Employee knowledge
• Employee skills and
abilities
SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III. And K. E. Weick, Jr. Managerial Behavior. Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970.
Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.
Adam’s Theory of Inequity
Inequity – the situation in
which a person perceives
he or she is receiving
less than he or she is
giving, or is giving less
than he or she is
receiving
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Equity and Inequity at Work
Person
Comparison
other
Equity
Outcomes = Outcomes
Inputs
Inputs
Negative
Equity
Outcomes < Outcomes
Inputs
Inputs
Positive
Equity
Outcomes > Outcomes
Inputs
Inputs
Strategies for Resolution of Inequity
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Alter the person’s outcomes
Alter the person’s inputs
Alter the comparison other’s outputs
Alter the comparison other’s inputs
Change who is used as a comparison other
Rationalize the inequity
Leave the organizational situation
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New Perspectives on Equity Theory
I prefer an equity
ratio equal to that of
my comparison other
Equity Sensitive
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New Perspectives in Equity Theory
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
less than that of my
comparison other
Benevolent
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New Perspectives on Equity Theory
Entitled
I am comfortable
with an equity ratio
greater than that of
my comparison other
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7
Learning Outcome
Describe the expectancy theory of
motivation.
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Expectancy Theory of Motivation:
Key Constructs
Valence – value or importance
placed on a particular reward
Expectancy – belief that effort leads
to performance
Instrumentality – belief that
performance is related to rewards
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Expectancy Model of Motivation
Effort
Effort
Performance
Perceived effort –
performance
probability
Perceived
performance –
reward probability
“What are my
chances of getting
the job done if I
put forth the
necessary effort?”
“What are my
chances of getting
the rewards I value
if I satisfactorily
complete the job?”
Reward
Perceived
value of reward
“What rewards
do I value?”
3 Causes of Motivational Problems
• Belief that effort will not result in
performance
• Belief that performance will not
result in rewards
• The value a person places on, or
the preference a person has for,
certain rewards
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Moral Maturity
the measure of a person’s cognitive moral
development
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Moral Maturity
Morally mature people
behave and act based
on universal ethical
principles.
Morally immature
people behave and act
based on egocentric
motivations.
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8
Learning Outcome
Describe the cultural differences in
motivation.
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Cultural Differences
• Motivational theories
are culturally bound
• Research results
differ among
U.S. Results
cultures
=
Other Cultural Results
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Ways to Motivate People
•
•
•
•
Training
Coaching
Task assignments
Rewards contingent on good
performance
• Valued rewards available
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Beyond the Book:
Volunteering and Motivation
Canine Companions for Independence provides
trained assistance dogs for the disabled.
Emily Williams, a volunteer at CCI, has helped to
raise 180 dogs over the course of a decade.
Emily is an unpaid volunteer—love for dogs and
disabled persons are her sole motivations to
work with CCI.
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