World Religions
Review

Polytheism
• The world’s most ancient belief system
• Animism – nature
• Can also be a collection of defined gods/goddesses
• Belief in divine forces that are manifest in nature
• Many ancient societies were polytheistic: Greece, Rome, Egypt,
Mesopotamia, India, Americas, and
African animism

Hinduism
• Originated in India and is the religion of the majority
• World’s oldest organized religion
• Polytheistic and an overarching deity
• Ancient scriptures: Rig Vedas (tell of multiple gods/goddesses)

Development
• Developed gradually over centuries (no “founder” or central figure – this makes it different from all other major religions)
• Its origins lie in the Vedic and
Epic Ages as the Aryan religion gained greater sophistication
• Fluid religion

Fundamental Tenets
• Can be used to encourage economic, political, or social goals
• Key = many paths. Its “openness” to many gods allows it to be perceived as more tolerant and may win converts for that reason
(for example, Greeks who were stationed there after Alexander the
Great)
• The basic holy essence is called
Brahma
• Priestly caste is the Brahman

Fundamental Tenets
• There are ceremonies attached, but there is also an emphasis on mystical ideas that seek out the divine soul (gurus)
• Belief in reincarnation – every living thing participates in the divine essence and should seek union. When union occurs, suffering ceases
• Divine essence is seen in several key deities: Shiva and Vishnu

Fundamental Tenets
• There is an emphasis on prayer for aid in reincarnation
• There are epic poems that illustrate the principles and urge people to pursue “dharma” – moral law that places consequences for our actions
• Be honorable, but it also allows for pleasure, aggressive merchants, warriors (upholds caste system)

Spread of Hinduism
• Across India
• At least briefly to other parts of Asia because it was seen as “tolerant”
• Provided satisfying rules for living morally

Hinduism and Gender
• Heavily influenced gender structures –girls were excluded from studying sacred texts
• Some Hindu texts indicate a woman cannot reach the final stage of bliss until she has been reborn as a man
• However, women do have some power – there are strong Hindu goddesses
• Woman perform rituals on their own or with their husbands and were often participants in devotional activities
• Hindu stories stressed devotion to men, but also praised women
• Family life and procreation were part of one’s religions duties
• Sati

• Caste system was tied to religion
• Reinforced the caste system while giving people hope for a future life

Dancing Shiva
Symbols
Lotus Flower – roots in the mud, but blooms above the water, like a person seeking release
Aum – both a symbol & sound

Judaism
• World’s oldest monotheistic religion
• Both a faith and an ethnic identity

Development
• Abraham and his wife Sarah leave
Mesopotamia for Israel
• Earliest Jews were pastoralists
• See some examples of diffusion between Mesopotamia and the Jewish kingdom: lex talonis (eye for an eye –
Hammurabi), both have a flood story
• Moses – led the people from Egypt
• Empire became a monarchy, but struggled with powerful Mesopotamian and Persian kingdoms

Fundamental Tenets
• Firm belief in monotheism – Jehovah
• Jehovah guides the destinies of the
Jewish people (a special people) – he is personally involved in the lives of his people
• Stresses a special compact between
Jehovah and the Jews
• Hebrew Bible – 10 Commandments
& The Torah

Fundamental Tenets
• Emphasis on Jehovah’s justice and expectations for human behavior
(as opposed to others in the region that suggested gods were whimsical or capricious)
• Strong moral code to live by that focused on justice
• Way of life, not only a set of rituals
• Importance of the temple – not a ziggurat (The Western Wall)

Spread of Judaism
• No strong emphasis on converting other people because of the belief in a special covenant between
Jehovah and his people
• This kept them in a minority in the
Middle East
• Did spread via trade diffusion to
Axum (Ethiopia)
• Diaspora

Judaism and Gender
• Since they are monotheistic, there are no female goddesses
• There were prominent women in early Judaism (Sarah)
• No women priestesses
• Patriarchy was reflected in their moral laws – authority of husband
• Moses’ code provides for the protection of widows

• There were poor classes and slaves, but the law said they must be taken care of

Symbols
Star of David – represents the interaction of the divine with the human
Menorah – one of the oldest symbols of
Judaism
Four letters that make up the word
Yahweh (Jehovah)

Confucianism
• Critical concept is the proper understanding or relationships
• Founder is Kung Fuzi, aka
Confucius
• More of a philosophy that a religion
• Can be combined with other religious ideas (Buddhism)

Development
• Confucius life was devoted to reading, traveling, and preaching
• He believed in a divine order, but refused to speculate on it
• This reflects that fact that ancient
China values were predominantly secular, rather than religious like most others at the time
• He saw himself as a spokesmen for the great days of China before the
Zhou declined

Fundamental Tenets
• Confucius emphasized political virtue and good government
• People should emphasize personal virtue and should reverence tradition
(this would create a solid political life)
• Stressed respect for one’s superiors, but also argued that a leader has a responsibility to behave appropriately
• Leaders should be modest, love wisdom and venerate tradition and ritual – this will create sound government

Fundamental Tenets
• Confucianism is primarily a system of ethics
• Emphasizes loyalty to the group
• The Analects are the collection of writings and he believed in making education available
• The levels of relationships were interrelated – a person could not be a good leader if they were not a good son and showed respect to their father

Spread of Confucianism
• Some were not inclined to accept it because it failed to deal with spiritual issues
• Mostly appealed to the upper classes, although it did spread to some in the lower classes. However, most of the peasants were still polytheistic/worshipped ancestors.
Gradually the values of Confucianism diffused throughout the classes
• Spread to Japan via diffusion
• Ideas were initially spread by his disciple Mencius

Confucianism and Gender
• Fathers and husbands were the head of the family within
Confucianism
• Emphasized a strict hierarchy that was made even stricter with the introduction of Neoconfuciansim in the Ming
• Stressed the 3 Obediences –
Father, husband, and son when she was widowed

• Determined by a proper understanding of relationships
• Loyalty is called upon
• Be obedient to those above you
• The creed of Confucianism was most accepted by the upper class who had the time and resources to pursue and education and who benefited from the system

Trigram
Symbols
Shou
Pa-Pao

Daoism
• A more religious philosophy in ancient China than
Confucianism

Development
• Teachings of Laozi (aka Lao-tsu)
• In their work with nature, they were probably the first to discover explosives – gunpowder and firework would be future uses

Fundamental Tenets
• Emphasis on harmony with nature
• Emphasized the mystery of nature
• All of nature contains a divine impulse that directs all life
• True understanding comes from withdrawing from the world and contemplating this life force
• This life force is called the Dao (Tao)
– it means “the way of nature”

Fundamental Tenets
• Did have a set of rituals as well as a set of ethics
• Be humble and live frugally
• Would later be influenced and even align with Buddhism after the collapse of the Han
• Was relatively compatible with
Confucianism, so little was done to limit it

Spread of Daoism
• Diffusion within China
• Some spread to Japan

Daoism and Gender
• Did talk more than Confucianism about the compatibility and position of women, but it did support a patriarchal system in which women were to be subordinate and obedient

• First appealed mostly to the upper class who were interested in spiritual affairs

Symbols
Yin and Yang – idealized balanced forces
(moon/sun, women/men, cold/hot, etc… Symbol for the Dao

Buddhism
• Is an outgrowth of Hinduism
• Siddhartha Gautama became the person known as the
Buddha – “enlightened one”
• Did not become the dominant religion in any region, instead it functions together with other religions

Development
• The Buddha questioned the fairness of the earthly life that many seemed forced to endure because of the caste system – he was actually born to a wealthy family
• Once he had fasted, studied, etc… he felt he had found the truth and began traveling and gathering disciples

Fundamental Tenets
• Kept many of the fundamental truths about Hinduism, like reincarnation
• Denied other ideas in Hinduism like the caste system
• The world is warped because people have desire
• Eliminate desire and you eliminate pain and can achieve enlightenment and be freed from the cycle of reincarnation

Fundamental Tenets
• Nirvana is the state one achieves once they have broken the cycle
• Live a holy life
• Don’t really need rituals and denied the necessity of priests (an attack on Indian social system)
• The Buddha gradually came to be seen as divine
• There is an emphasis on living a holy life on earth

Fundamental Tenets
• The religion did evolve some – an emphasis on prayers and the belief that some who died remained close in order to intervene
• Some came to see Buddha as divine

Spread of Buddhism
• It spread and was coherent because of the works of monks who preached
• Initially gained many followers in
India, including the conversion of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka, but is was strongly opposed by the
Brahmans

Spread of Buddhism
• Did not gain a large following in India
• Spread to China, Sri Lanka, Korea,
Japan
• Had a meaningful impact in China after the collapse of the Han, but did not result in the elimination of other religions
• East Asian Buddhism (China and
Japan) spurred new art (statues and pagoda style)
• Used Silk Roads to move towards Asia

Buddhism and Gender
• Men and women both have souls and can actively participate
• In China – it should have disputed patriarchy, but it didn’t – it actually reinforced it – ex: “husband supports wife” was changed to
“husband controls wife” – a mixture with Confucianism (syncretism)
• It did allow her to participate, but it did not free women from patriarchy

• Rejected the class explanation of
Hinduism
• Some in China disliked it, because they thought it would interfere with Confucianism and loyalty by the peasant to the emperor

Symbols (8)
Conch
Shell
The
Treasure
Vase
Lotus
Parasol
Victory
Banner
Wheel
Endless
Knot
Golden Fishes

• Represent the enlightened mind of
Buddha
• It represents enlightened understanding and offerings
• Usually contains a holy tree and relics of teachers
• Supposed to be shaped like the body of the Buddha

Christianity
• One of the two largest faiths in the world
• Is “exclusive” in that it teaches it is the only way (as opposed to
“inclusive religions” that say there are many ways)

Development
• Originated within Judaism
• Spread throughout the Roman
Empire – persecution until
Constantine (sometimes cited as one thing that weakened Roman
Empire)
• Split in 1054 and after 1517
• Placed more emphasis on organization and hierarchy (RCC,
Pope, etc…) than other faiths

Fundamental Tenets
• Jesus Christ was the Messiah that the Jews has been looking for
• He taught that he was divine and was the Savior
• Crucifixion and Resurrection
• Jesus or his disciples did not initially seem intent on starting a new religion, but they were alienated from Judaism

Fundamental Tenets
• Teaches monotheism, but explains it in terms of the Trinity – God, Jesus,
Holy Spirit
• The Bible (including the Jewish
Torah) is the Holy Book
• Teaches the Second Coming and
Judgment, but also salvation
• Baptism and Communion (other sacraments)

Fundamental Tenets
• Development of monasteries
(Benedict) for study (and keepers of knowledge during the Dark
Ages)

Spread of Christianity
• Moved westward from the Middle
East into Europe
• Used the construction of Roman
Roads to facilitate spread (compare to Buddhism using Silk Roads)
• People within the Roman Empire were open and they were drawn to the teaching of purity and simplicity and the large nature of the Empire made it possible for the religion to really spread

Spread of Christianity
• Huge emphasis on missionary activity and converts (even more than Buddhism)
• Also spread to Persia and Africa –
Egypt (Coptics) and Ethiopia (also had a Jewish tradition)
• Paul was an important missionary who wrote a lot of the New
Testament

Spread of Christianity
• When Constantine converted, only about 10% of the empire were
Christians. Church/State struggles occurred within the Byzantine
Empire – then became official

Christianity and Gender
• Special appeal for women
• Equal importance for men’s and women’s souls
• Did not teach social equality, though
• Encouraged men and women to worship together (unlike many other religions)
• Nuns
• Reformation

Christianity and Society
• Did face challenges “heresy” – nature of God – early Church writers like Augustine addressed this
• They did incorporate traditions
(winter solstice) – another example of syncretism
• Accepted the state, but did not put it first

Christianity Social Class
• Was not merely an elite religion
• Did play a political role
• Popular message of salvation was especially appealing to the poor
• Did provide some unity where no existed (sort of like Hinduism)
• Provided equality among different social groups
• Worked against slavery, although they did not outlaw it

Symbols
Crosses
Icthus
The Trinity
Agnus Dei
Alpha and Omega
Dove
Anchor

Islam
• The latest appearing of the world’s major religions
• 7 th century (only new religion in the second time period)

Development
• Origination of the religion is centered around the life of
Mohammed
• Received revelations in the deserts outside Mecca (Kabba was in
Mecca)
• Had to flee because of persecution
– the hijra to Medina
• Returned with followers and conquered Mecca

Development
• Tied to religion and politics together
• Early converts were from local
Bedouin tribes and villages
(similar to early Christianity which focused on local Jewish converts)

Fundamental Tenets
• Monotheism with no intermediaries
– no saints, angels were merely messengers
• Recognized others as prophets –
Abraham, Moses, Jesus (not divine)
• Said that Mohammed was the last prophet
• No priests in the way that Judaism or Christianity had them

Fundamental Tenets
• Provided an ethical system
• Did develop a large body of laws to help people prepare for eternity
• 5 pillars – Confession of faith, prayer, fast, zakat (charity), haij to Mecca

Spread of Islam
• The unity that resulted set in motion a strong movement of conquest that took the religion with them (but did not force conversions – it was motivated by unity, desire to release Bedouin energy, etc…as well as religion)
• Didn’t force conversion b/c then they would have to share the riches and not collect the tax
• Did practice relative tolerance as they spread (pay a tax if you don’t convert);
Cordoba

Spread of Islam
• Had a special place for “people of the book” (called the dhimmi, who paid the jizya tax)
• Spread throughout northern Africa – trade, conquest
• South Asia (India) – some conflicts
(caste system vs. equality) & monotheism vs. polytheism). Spread through a variety of ways: traders, Sufi mystics, warriors, pastoralists. Religion diffused into India and Indian science and tech (algebra, numbers, medicine, etc…) diffused into the Islamic empire.
Later turned to Muslim conquest.

Spread of Islam
• Merchants (Silk Roads, Indian Ocean and others) helped spread into India and beyond – favorable trading arrangements
• Sufi mystics
• Spread to Southeast Asia – trade contacts (Indonesia, Sumatra, Malaysia)
–the rapid spread shows people were receptive. Slower progress in Java and
Bali which was Hindu was almost unreachable)

Islam and Gender
• Taught equality before Allah
• Early on, women’s position was good – probably better than other Middle
Eastern women
• Mohammed emphasized marriage bonds and the value of family. He forbade infanticide and adultery and forbade polygamy if the husband couldn’t support all wives equally
• Supported legal rights for women

Islam and Gender
• Couldn’t lead prayers, but were actively involved
• Position of women worsened in later caliphates, especially the
Abassid
• Veiling and seclusion (Persia)
• Harem (Turks)
• Rich women were allowed essentially no public role

Islam and Social Structure
• Gave them a unity because the faith belonged to no single tribe or village
• Helped end feuds from between the various groups – the umma – the community went beyond tribal boundaries and opened up the possibility of political unity (single source of authority)

Islam and Social Structure
• Dignity of all believers
• All were equal in Allah’s eyes
• Responsibility of those who can to take care of the poor, weak and infirmed (payment of the zakat was a charity tax)
• Rich couldn’t charge high interest on loans
• Shouldn’t enslave fellow Muslims

Symbols
Limited symbols due to the prohibition of images
Kabba
Dome of the Rock
Crescent moon – not a religious symbol – it’s political