Who are the Indians?
Defining the real object of archaeological study
To say that Europeans (or Chinese!) discovered America
must be an unbelievable joke to Native Americans—
Their existence has had tremendous significance for European and
Euroamerican philosophical thought, politics and economics
—and still is!
Their existence has had tremendous significance for European and
Euroamerican philosophical thought, politics and economics.
But claiming the Americas for Spain brought almost
unimaginable tragedy to the Indians.
Intellectual Excitement—
Ethnocentric Interpretation
16th century intellectuals were profoundly
excited, and their imaginations were stirred,
raising a number of pressing questions
1. Who are the Indians? Varied and plentiful
answers
2. Where did they come from? Were they
children of God?
The historic Papal Bull of Pope Paul III in
1537 and the work of Antonio de Montesinos
and Bartolomé de las Casas, Indians were
declared to be human beings, which must
have been news to "the people“
Implication was that they should be
missionized…and they were. Heavily.
Some ideas, with damaging consequences
1582: Pedro de Lievano Dean of the Cathedral of Guatemala
‘what causes the Indian to die and diminish in number are
secret judgments of God beyond the reach of men’
1620: Bradford, Colonist
‘the good hand of God favored our beginnings by
sweeping away great multitudes of the natives…that he
might make room for us’
William
Bradford
1630: Cotton Mather, Puritan Elder
‘the Book of Genesis authorizes the descendants of Adam
or Noah to come inhabit where there is a vacant place
without purchase or permission’
Cotton Mather
•
1763, PA:
‘you will do well to try to innoculate the Indians by
means of blankets as well as to try every other method that
can serve to extirpate this exorable race ‘…we gave them
two blankets and a handkerchief out of the smallpox
hospital. I hope it will have the desired effect’
•
1881 Henry Price, US Commissioner of Indian Affairs
“Savage and civilized life cannot live and prosper on
the same ground. One of the two must die…we are fifty
millions of people, and they are only one-fourth of one
million. The few must yield to the many”
•
1885: Lyman Abott, reformer:
– “It is sometimes said that the Indian occupied this
country and that we took it away from them; that the
country belonged to them. This is not true. The Indians
did not occupy this land. A people do not occupy a
country simply because they roam over it…the Indians
can scarcely be said to have occupied this country more
than the bisons and buffalo they hunted. Three hundred
thousand people have no right to hold a continent and
keep at bay a race able to people it…”
Huge depopulation impact from diseases
Diseases in ‘New World’ and ‘Old World’
Endemic: TB, dysentery, staph and strep
Epidemic: smallpox, measles, diphtheria, typus, typhoid, bubonic
plague, malaria
1815-1816: Smallpox killed 4,000 out of 10,000 Comanche
Early 1830s: Pawnee lost half of their population of 20,000,
Mandan, Arikara, Hidatsa from 35,000 to under 2,000
Smallpox – an ancient ‘childhood disease’
1700s: 10-15% deaths in Western Europe
80% of deaths under the age of 10
70% under the age of 2
Impact: 90-95% Mortality
What were the effects and repercussions of epidemic
devastation?
Major shifts in social life, family life, economy, politics, religion,
psychology
What were the effects and
repercussions of epidemic
devastation?
Major shifts in social life, family life,
economy, politics, religion, psychology
Many long-term traditions lost
See ‘Timeline of European Disease Epidemics Among
American Indians’
Images
Both from Jaune Quick-to-See Smith
Top: Paper Dolls for a Post-Columbian World with
Ensembles Contributed by the U.S. Government,
in the Eiteljorg Museum
Bottom: Famous Names
But like it or not, as Children of God, The implication was that they
should be missionized…and they were.
Heavily.
—and still are!
St. Labre Mission,
Montana
St. Joseph Indian School,
South Dakota
There have always been
complex threads of thought
regarding Indians.
The early views:
•They were not in the Bible,
therefore were not human, but
were the spawn of Satan.
•They were human and children of
God who needed to be brought to
God.
•They were descended from the
Lost Tribes of Israel.
•They were destroyers of the lost
race of Moundbuilders.
•They descendants of people who
had migrated across the Bering
Straits.
The Moundbuilder Myth
1. Explorers who were used a
natural scientific approach which
is still reflected in the fact that
Indians and archaeology tend to
be in natural history museums
instead of history museums
2. Most were not directly on the
scene or as involved Armchair
explorers using a literary
approach
Indians became objects of natural history
Thomas Jefferson cautioned Lewis and Clark to
"treat [the Indians] in the most friendly and
conciliatory manner which their own conduct will
admit."
Many ethnographic objects were painstakingly
gathered, described, and preserved for their
journey east. Hide clothing, woven hats, buffalo
robes, calumets, feather badges, baskets, bows
and arrows, and ornaments, like the natural history
specimens, were carefully prepared to make the
journey to the nation's capitol.
Jefferson transferred some of the expedition
materials to the Peale museum, retaining others at
his home, Monticello. At Monticello, artifacts from
the Corps of Discovery were displayed in
Jefferson's "Indian Hall," along with other objects
given to or collected by Jefferson.
—and still are!
Indiana State Museum
Natural History Pages
Biology
Geology
Historical Archaeology
Prehistoric Archaeology
Vertebrate Paleobiology and
Quaternary Studies
Note that Indians are right there with the rocks and extinct animals!
Indians weren’t taken out of the museum
cabinet of curiosities until 1989!
The National Museum of the American
Indian Act (PL 101-185) was passed in
1989.
NMAI opened in 2004.
Before then Indian materials had been in
the National Museum of Natural History.
Were Indians Disappearing? The view by the 1800s
Whatever their origins, the dominant view is that Indians would be
disappearing soon after the turn of the 20th Century
Countless paintings were based on a sculpture, The End
of the Trail, by James Earle Fraser, 1876 - 1953
Most Americans still have that view
Salvage Ethnography
Francis Densmore
Frank Hamilton Cushing
An 1889 photograph of Chief
Joseph speaking to ethnologist
Alice Cunningham Fletcher
Lewis Henry Morgan
Francis LaFlesche
James Mooney
Salvage Archaeology
Cyrus Thomas
John Wesley Powell
William Henry Holmes
Jesse Walter Fewkes
When Indians became “objects of historic or
scientific interest”
American Antiquities Act of 1906
16 USC 431-433
Sec. 2. That the President of the United States is hereby authorized, in his discretion, to declare
by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric structures, and other
objects of historic or scientific interest that are situated upon the lands owned or controlled by
the Government of the United States to be national monuments, and may reserve as a part
thereof parcels of land, the limits of which in all cases shall be confined to the smallest area
compatible with proper care and management of the objects to be protected: Provided, That
when such objects are situated upon a tract covered by a bonafied unperfected claim or held in
private ownership, the tract, or so much thereof as may be necessary for the proper care and
management of the object, may be relinquished to the Government, and the Secretary of the
Interior is hereby authorized to accept the relinquishment of such tracts in behalf of the
Government of the United States.
Sec. 3. That permits for the examination of ruins, the excavation of archaeological sites, and
the gathering of objects of antiquity upon the lands under their respective jurisdictions may be
granted by the Secretaries of the Interior, Agriculture, and War to institutions which the may
deem properly qualified to conduct such examination, excavation, or gathering, subject to such
rules and regulation as they may prescribe: Provided, That the examinations, excavations, and
gatherings are undertaken for the benefit of reputable museums, universities, colleges, or
other recognized scientific or educational institutions, with a view to increasing the knowledge
of such objects, and that the gatherings shall be made for permanent preservation in public
museums.
Approved, June 8, 1906
Skulls and Bones
The Development of Craniometry
Samuel G. Morton (1799-1851)
In his 1839 Crania Americana,
anthropologist Samuel George
Morton reported that the mean
cranial capacity of the skulls of
Whites was 87 in³ (1,425 cm³), while
that of Blacks was 78 in³ (1,278 cm³).
Based on the measurement of 144
skulls of Native Americans, he
reported an a figure of 82 in³ (1,344
cm³).
Crania Americana, 1839
Morton’s descriptions of Native Americans
The American Race is marked by a brown complexion; long, black,
lank hair; and deficient beard. The eyes are black and deep set, the
brow low, the cheekbones high, the nose large and aquiline, the
mouth large, and the lips tumid [swollen] and compressed. . . . In
their mental character the Americans are averse to cultivation, and
slow in acquiring knowledge; restless, revengeful, and fond of war,
and wholly destitute of maritime adventure. They are crafty, sensual,
ungrateful, obstinate and unfeeling, and much of their affection for
their children may be traced to purely selfish motives. They devour
the most disgusting [foods] uncooked and uncleaned, and seem to
have no idea beyond providing for the present moment. . . . Their
mental faculties, from infancy to old age, present a continued
childhood. . . . [Indians] are not only averse to the restraints of
education, but for the most part are incapable of a continued
process of reasoning on abstract subjects. . . .
See a simulation of Morton’s techniques for measuring cranial capacity at
www.facinghistory.org
The Skull Collecting Frenzy
By order of the Surgeon General, September 1st,
1868.
The officers of the medical staff are informed that a
craniological collection was commenced last . . . The
chief purpose had in view in forming this collection is
to aid in the progress . . . will evince even greater zeal
in collecting for their own muse ums . . . It is chiefly
desired to procure a sufficiently large series of adult
crania of the principal Indian tribes to furnish
accurate average measurements.
US Army Medical Museum
Skull Collection
That single request resulted in the collection of some
4,000 skulls.
•Brought to the point of destruction by starvation,
war and disease, Native Americans were seen as
a doomed people.
•A collecting frenzy began, driven by the romantic
notion that a vanishing culture could be saved.
•Dozens of museums were built to house the
collections, where the remains have rested until
now.
“…but what is the use, someone has to do it."
When four Eskimos died at the American
Museum of Natural History in 1896,
Hrdlicka directed that all four be
macerated, boiled, and reduced to
skeletons at the College of Physicians and
Surgeons of Columbia University."
The remains were then sent to the
museum's collection where they could be
studied.
Franz Boas was noted for stating that it
was "most unpleasant work to steal
bones from graves, but what is the use,
someone has to do it."
Ales Hrdlicka
Franz Boas poses for
a model of a Kwakiutl
dancer (ca. 1900).
The idea of skull measurements and race
haven’t really gone away
James Chatters & Kennewick reconstruction
[Kennewick] man lacks definitive characteristics of the classic
mongoloid stock to which modern Native Americans belong. The skull
is dolichocranic (cranial index 73.8) rather than brachycranic, the face
narrow and prognathous rather than broad and flat. Cheek bones
recede slightly and lack an inferior zygomatic projection; the lower rim
of the orbit is even with the upper. Other features are a long, broad
nose that projects markedly from the face and high, round orbits. The
mandible is v-shaped,with a pronounced, deep chin. Many of these
characteristics are definitive of modern-day caucasoid peoples, while
others, such as the orbits are typical of neither race. Dental
characteristics fit Turner's (1983) Sundadont pattern, indicating
possible relationship to south Asian peoples.
James Chatters
What can be said about physical
variation?
Stereotypic—Red-brown skin, dark brown eyes,
prominent cheek bones, straight black hair, and
scantiness of beard—but huge variation
Skin color—Very light in some tribes, as the
Cheyenne, to almost black in others, as the
Caddo and Tarimari. In a few tribes, as the
Flatheads, the skin has a distinct yellowish cast.
Hair—varies dramatically in amount, texture &
color
Eyes—Generally dark
Body shape—great variation in height, weight,
physique
Blood type—generally O
Other features—shove-shaped incisors, Inca
bones, but these are variable
Size—a wide range, from 5.5 to 6.5 feet tall
So, who is an Indian?
Ways to define “Indianness”
Population
Legal
Indians are from now, not just back then!
•We need to understand that in spite of all
the hardships of contact, there has been
continuity.
Winona LaDuke, Environmental
activist, 2004 Green Party VP
Candidate, White Earth
Anishinabeg (Ojibwe)
Senator Ben
Nighthorse Campbell,
Northern Cheyenne
John-Bennett-HerringtonChickasaw Nation
(Commander,-USN)NASA
Who gets counted as being Indian?
•Self-Identification
•Card-carrying Indians and tribal rolls
•Blood quantum
•DNA
US Census:
Person having origins in any of the original peoples of
North, Central and South America and who maintain
tribal affiliation or community attachment.
Includes people who self-reported ‘American Indian
and Alaska Native’ or wrote their principal or enrolled
tribe
Race on the 2000 census
is by self-identification
Examples of group identity criteria
Enrollment requirements
Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez, 1977 Supreme Court ruled that no
federal agency or any entity except an Indian tribe could determine who
its people are. For even longer, the Sup. Ct. has held that Indian
nationhood & tribal citizenry are political, not racial matters
An exercise of Tribal SOVEREIGNTY
Blood Quantum – Navajo 1/4
Lineage
Social/Cultural – connection to the community? Speak the language? Have
a name from the tribe?
Cherokee:
Eastern Band: 1/16 Blood quantum
Oklahoma bands: lineage
Tribes didn’t always have BQ enrollment requirements:
Used to adopt other members from other tribes or non-Indians
Kinship rather than blood
Enrollment evolved to provide fair distribution of benefits: land, resources,
voting, compensation, etc.
Contemporary Populations
American Indian and Alaska Native Population
in 2004 (as single race): 2,151,322
Distribution of Native American Languages
Language Variation
For such a small population, Indian languages
are extremely diverse.
57 families grouped into 9 macro-families or
phyla
300 distinct languages
2000 dialects
California—at least 20 families
West of Rockies—17 more
Rest of the continent—20 more
Several sign and trade languages
Today English is the most commonly
spoken language, and many native
languages are gone or will soon be so.
Indian Views of Land
Stereotypes abound regarding Indian views
of land.
Generally:
•Land could not be individually owned
•Land could be controlled by family units,
such as clans
•The operating principle was usufruct
•The earth was sacred and to be cared
for, but it could be used, albeit carefully.
Mother Earth seems a common concept,
but it has been called into question.
•Sacred places were a key; sacredness
can be difficult to understand
Assorted land images…
For information about Indian views of land and environment, see Native
Americans and the Environment.
Cultures Areas or Food Areas?
The Culture Area Concept
The Problem with Culture Areas
Actually, these categories have entered into the
popular culture in a big way. They are now the main
descriptors of Indian groups.
One needs to question whether it is still a useful
concept:
It may be that it locks Indian groups in time, using
descriptions of groups at the time of Contact.
Pan-Indian cultural activities and massive
influences of media have "blended" lots of cultural
traits.--Plains and Southwest stereotypes are
dominant
Doesn't account for the ability of groups to adjust
to white and other Indian influence.
Kinship was the social organization core for most
Indian nations
Small scale societies
Initially after first habitation, small populations
of hunters and gatherers were the norm.
•Most were nomadic, with small populations of
+/- 200
•Major unit was extended family, usually
patricentric
•Microband/macroband seasonality
•Groups were nearly acehpalous (without a
head), but leaders developed with achieved
status
•Mostly egalitarian, with rule by consensus
•These patterns survived until well past
European Contact especially in marginal
areas or those with minimal contact.
Hunting and Gathering Life
Settled village life
Greater emphasis on gathering and use of cultivars caused
changes circa 7,000 years ago
•Cultivars and intensive gathering allowed small
surpluses
•Surpluses allowed larger surpluses and more
settled life
•In the rich eastern woodlands, Primary Forest
Efficiency allowed substantially larger
populations (+/- 1000)
•Beginnings of social stratification
•Still kinship based and some use of
micro/macroband in marginal areas
•Kin based, clan structured organization still
mostly patricentric
Horticulture has a 3000 year
history in Indian Country
Horticulture brought major changes
•After 3000 BP, emphasis on domesticated plants allowed
greater surpluses
•With surpluses came dramatic population growth (100030,000) in villages and “cities”
•Gardening shifts cultural emphasis to matricentric
•Large populations keep clan structures, but often added a
layer of social control at chiefdom level
•Social stratification became substantial
•A shift toward urban life
•Emergence of “pre-state” structures
Changes in Social Structure since
Contact
•Detribalization, migration, and urbanization
•Reservation and social structure
•Kinship and the family
•Political resurgence - reservations as a
power base
•Contemporary political organization - tribal
and urban
Courses toward urban life
At Contact, there was immense diversity
•A very wide range of social organizations and political
ideologies at European Contact
•Social organization ranged from nomadic, patricentric,
egalitarian hunters and gatherers with completely kin-based
systems to nearly urban, socially stratified, matricentric
horticulturalists with both kin and non-kin-based systems.
•Much of this broke down during the next 500 years.
•Social organization is still in flux.
What do we know about Indians?
A lot—yes, but much of it is wrong or at least
there is another view
Etic vs. emic
Outside vs. inside
Real vs. ideal
Scientific epistemologies vs. traditional
epistemologies
So, then, do we really know much about
Indians?
Yes, but mostly from a scientific perspective
Knowing what it means to be Indian is a very
different matter!
Knowing that our archaeologically derived
scientific perspectives have an impact on
contemporary Indians is crucial for us to
understand!