What is CALL?
Computer-assisted language learning
(CALL) is defined in a seminal work by
Levy (1997: p. 1) as "the search for
and study of applications of the
computer in language teaching and
learning".[1]
CALL
• computer-mediated communication, allowing
learners to communicate and collaborate with
target language culture and its speakers while
accessing authentic materials
CALL embraces a wide range of ICT applications and
approaches to teaching and learning foreign
languages, from the "traditional" drill-and-practice
programs that characterised CALL in the 1960s and
1970s to more recent manifestations of CALL, e.g. as
used in a virtual learning environment and Webbased distance learning. It also extends to the use
of corpora and concordancers, interactive
whiteboards,[2]Computer-mediated communication
(CMC),[3] language learning in virtual worlds,
and Mobile-assisted language learning (MALL).[4]
The term CALI (Computer-assisted language
instruction) was in use before CALL, reflecting its
origins as a subset of the general term CAI
(Computer-assisted instruction). CALI fell out of
favour among language teachers, however, as it
appeared to imply a teacher-centred approach
(instructional), whereas language teachers are
more inclined to prefer a student-centred
approach, focusing on learning rather than
instruction. CALL began to replace CALI in the
early 1980s (Davies & Higgins 1982: p. 3) and it is
now incorporated into the names of the growing
number of professional associations worldwide.
An alternative term, Technology-enhanced •
language learning (TELL),[6] also emerged
around the early 1990s: e.g. the TELL
Consortium project, University of Hull.
The current philosophy of CALL puts a strong
emphasis on student-centred materials that
allow learners to work on their own. But they
normally embody two important features:
interactive learning and individualised
learning. CALL is essentially a tool that helps
teachers to facilitate the language learning
process. It can be used to reinforce what has
been already learned in the classroom or as a
remedial tool to help learners who require
additional support.
The design of CALL materials generally takes into
consideration principles of language pedagogy
and methodology, which may be derived from
different learning theories (e.g. behaviourist,
cognitive, constructivist) and second language
learning theories such as Stephen
Krashen's monitor hypothesis.
A combination of face-to-face teaching and CALL
is usually referred to as blended learning.
Blended learning is designed to increase
learning potential and is more commonly
found than pure CALL (Pegrum 2009: p. 27).[7]
CALL dates back to the 1960s, when it was first
introduced on university mainframe
computers. The PLATO project, initiated at the
University of Illinois in 1960, is an important
landmark in the early development of CALL
(Marty 1981). The advent of the
microcomputer in the late 1970s brought
computing within the range of a wider
audience, resulting in a boom in the
development of CALL programs and a flurry of
publications of books on CALL in the early
1980s.
“Little” programs
From earliest days of “microcomputers”,
enthusiasts saw ways to implement programs
to help learners
Programmed in low-level languages, eg Basic
implementations based on activities which were
already part of (language) learning
e.g. vocabulary drills, gap-filling exercises
10/14
Complete the texts using the words below.
France
Italy
Germany
Italian
German
French
____________________ , _____________________ and
______________________
are
located
in
Europe.
______________________
is
spoken
in
Germany.
______________________ is the official language in Italy and
______________________ is spoken in France, Belgium,
Switzerland, and other countries.
Dozens of CALL programs are currently available on the internet, at prices
ranging from free to expensive,[11] and other programs are available only
through university language courses.
There have been several attempts to document the history of CALL. Sanders
(1995) covers the period from the mid-1960s to the mid-1990s, focusing
on CALL in North America.[12] Delcloque (2000) documents the history of
CALL worldwide, from its beginnings in the 1960s to the dawning of the
new millennium.[13]Davies (2005) takes a look back at CALL's past and
attempts to predict where it is going.[14] Hubbard (2009) offers a
compilation of 74 key articles and book excerpts, originally published in
the years 1988-2007, that give a comprehensive overview of the wide
range of leading ideas and research results that have exerted an
influence on the development of CALL or that show promise in doing so
in the future.[15] A published review of Hubbard's collection can be found
inLanguage Learning & Technology 14, 3 (2010).[16]
Butler-Pascoe (2011) looks at the history of CALL from a different point of
view, namely the evolution of CALL in the dual fields of educational
technology and second/foreign language acquisition and the paradigm
shifts experienced along the way.[17]
Typology and phases
During the 1980s and 1990s several attempts were
made to establish a CALL typology. A wide range of
different types of CALL programs was identified by
Davies & Higgins (1985),[18] Jones & Fortescue
(1987),[19] Hardisty & Windeatt (1989)[20] and Levy
(1997: pp. 118ff.).[1] These included gap-filling and
Cloze programs, multiple-choice programs, freeformat (text-entry) programs, adventures and
simulations, action mazes, sentence-reordering
programs, exploratory programs - and "total Cloze", a
type of program in which the learner has to
reconstruct a whole text. Most of these early
programs still exist in modernised versions.
Since the 1990s it has become increasingly
difficult to categorise CALL as it now extends
to the use of blogs, wikis, social
networking, podcasting, Web
2.0applications, language learning in virtual
worlds and interactive whiteboards (Davies
et al. 2010: Section 3.7).[8]
Warschauer (1996)[21] and Warschauer &
Healey (1998)[22] took a different approach.
Rather than focusing on the typology of CALL,
they identified three historical phases of
CALL, classified according to their underlying
pedagogical and methodological approaches:
• Behavioristic CALL: conceived in the 1950s and
implemented in the 1960s and 1970s.
• Communicative CALL: 1970s to 1980s.
• Integrative CALL: embracing Multimedia and
the Internet: 1990s.
• Most CALL programs in Warschauer & Healey's first
phase, Behavioristic CALL (1960s to 1970s), consisted
of drill-and-practice materials in which the computer
presented a stimulus and the learner provided a
response. At first, both could be done only through
text. The computer would analyse students' input and
give feedback, and more sophisticated programs
would react to students' mistakes by branching to
help screens and remedial activities. While such
programs and their underlying pedagogy still exist
today, behavioristic approaches to language learning
have been rejected by most language teachers, and
the increasing sophistication of computer technology
has led CALL to other possibilities.
• The second phase described by Warschauer & Healey,
Communicative CALL, is based on the communicative
approach that became prominent in the late 1970s and
1980s (Underwood 1984).[23] In the communicative approach
the focus is on using the language rather than analysis of the
language, and grammar is taught implicitly rather than
explicitly. It also allows for originality and flexibility in
student output of language. The communicative approach
coincided with the arrival of the PC, which made computing
much more widely available and resulted in a boom in the
development of software for language learning.
The first CALL software in this phase continued to
provide skill practice but not in a drill format, for
example: paced reading, text reconstruction and
language games, but the computer remained
the tutor. In this phase computers provided
context for students to use the language, such as
asking for directions to a place, and programs
not designed for language learning such as Sim
City, Sleuth and Where in the World is Carmen
Sandiego? were used for language learning.
Criticisms of this approach include using the
computer in an ad hoc and disconnected
manner for more marginal aims rather than the
central aims of language teaching.
• The third phase of CALL described by Warschauer & Healey,
Integrative CALL, starting from the 1990s, tried to address
criticisms of the communicative approach by integrating the
teaching of language skills into tasks or projects to provide
direction and coherence. It also coincided with the development
of multimedia technology (providing text, graphics, sound and
animation) as well as Computer-mediated communication (CMC).
CALL in this period saw a definitive shift of the use of the
computer for drill and tutorial purposes (the computer as a finite,
authoritative base for a specific task) to a medium for extending
education beyond the classroom. Multimedia CALL started with
interactive laser videodiscs such as Montevidisco (Schneider &
Bennion 1984)[24]and A la rencontre de Philippe (Fuerstenberg
1993),[25] both of which were simulations of situations where the
learner played a key role. These programs later were transferred
to CD-ROMs, and new role-playing games (RPGs) such as Who is
Oscar Lake? made their appearance in a range of different
languages.
• In a later publication Warschauer changed the
name of the first phase of CALL from
Behavioristic CALL to Structural CALL and also
revised the dates of the three phases
(Warschauer 2000):[26]
• Structural CALL: 1970s to 1980s.
• Communicative CALL: 1980s to 1990s.
• Integrative CALL: 2000 onwards.
4.1. The structural-grammatical syllabus
This syllabus consists of an inventory of
grammatical, phonological and lexical items,
graded throughout the school period
according to difficulty.
Learner's role was to gain proficiency in the
mastery of these linguistic elements.
4.1. The structural-grammatical syllabus
UNIT
1
2
3
...
GRAMMAR
- Nouns &
articles
a desk, the
door
- Possessives
Whose is
this?
It's ...
- Verb "to be"
- Pronouns
- Questions
"tags"
You're
English,
aren't
you?
................
VOCABULARY
- The classroom
- Toys
- Adjectives of
nationality
.................
PHONETICS
-
/o/ /o:/
Intonation of statements
/w/ /v/
Diphthongs
Intonation of questions
tags
.....................
structural approach
CRITICISMS :
Structurally graded syllabus misrepresent the
nature of language
There is more than grammar to language
No one-to-one relationship between form and
function
Tend to promote activities which serve to
internalize the formal properties of language
STRUCTURAL SYLLABUS
- Aims to develop the student's linguistic
competence.
- Organized around structural, lexical &
phonetical items.
- Based on the structural paradigm:
sentences are the basic units for learning.
- Influenced by the behaviourist theory
of learning (stimulus, response,
reinforcement).
- Places more emphasis on accuracy
than fluency.
- Contents are carefully graded.
COMMUNICATIVE SYLLABUS
- Aims to develop the student's
communicative competence.
- Organized around notional & functional
items.
- Based on the discourse paradigm:
discourse, texts are the basis for learning.
- Influenced by cognitive theories and
theories of communication (speech acts,
communicative functions, etc.)
- Places more emphasis on fluency than
accuracy.
- Gradation is not so rigid.
Approach to task construction
Criteria for task design: (Widdowson, 1979)
Rational appeal (i.e. Does the task stimulate
students’ logical reasoning in the same way as it is
conceived of in their native language?);
Integration (i.e. Does the task integrate the language
skills in a pragmatic sense?);
Control (i.e. Is the task communicatively relevant and
adequate to the students’ linguistic level?).
• Bax (2003)[27] took issue with Warschauer & Healey
(1998) and Warschauer (2000) and proposed these
three phases:
• Restricted CALL - mainly behaviouristic: 1960s to
1980s.
• Open CALL - i.e. open in terms of feedback given to
students, software types and the role of the teacher,
and including simulations and games: 1980s to 2003
(i.e. the date of Bax's article).
• Integrated CALL - still to be achieved. Bax argued that
at the time of writing language teachers were still in
the Open CALL phase as true integration could only be
said to have be achieved when using CALL had reached
a state of "normalisation" – e.g. when it was as normal
as using a pen.
) Principles of technology use in educational settings
• Know Your Students
• It is important to understand the students and
what technology they use and are familiar
with. Teachers can use surveys and
assessments types to gauge the students on
their understanding. Technology and the
English language can’t be taught at the same
time.
Choosing Materials
• Choosing the right materials is also very
important. There are stages in choosing
technology for ELLs that go along with what they
are ready for and introduce the right subject at
the right time. It is important for the teacher to
recognize where the students are at in the
process. When choosing technological material
the teacher should consider the students
interests and how they already use technology in
order to capture their interest.
Students Working With Technology
• Students working with technology is one of
the biggest challenges of technology
integration in the classroom. Technology
enhanced classrooms have been found to
promote discovery of learning, learner
autonomy, and learner centeredness. The
teacher can promote learner autonomy
through the infusion of ITs and allow the
students to work collaboratively in pairs or
small groups.
Typical CALL programs at this level
• Multiple-choice tests
• Matching activities
• Item list learning and testing
– Vocabulary test (L1→L2, L2 →L1, picture naming)
– Writing system (eg Japanese, Chinese characters)
• Gap filling drills
– Grammatical forms (agreement, tenses)
– Vocabulary
• Note difficulty of allowing creative language use, due to need
to check right answer
– E.g. “compete this sentence with an appropriate adjective”
– Alternative allowable answers must be explicitly predicted
31/14
Stimulus – text, picture, sound, video
Lesson plan
Learner’s input – typed, spoken, other GUI
Is response appropriate?
Explanations etc.
Feedback to user
Student model
32/14
Language Use
• Research in language learning and IT use in
classrooms settings have over the years clearly
come out in favor of its beneficial effects on
second language development. The use of
technology allows students to communicate
freely and helps native and non-native
speakers to develop a better sense for
the language.
•
Challenges Of Technology Use In Classrooms
• Classroom teachers are embracing the use of
technology to enhance their classroom teaching
more today than ever before. But in order to
effectively use the technology in their classroom
they must prepare themselves for some of the
challenges they will face in accomplishing this
goal. Listed below are four of the major issues
classroom teachers identify when they discuss
the challenges of infusing technology into their
teaching and some brief thoughts you as an
aspiring educator might consider in order to
prepare yourself to meet those challenges.
•
•
•
•
Availability of Technology Hardware
Availability of Technical Assistance
Software Applications
Time to Integrate Technology into Teaching
Challenges of technology use in the classrooms
are always going to be presents when working
with technology. There are technical
difficulties which might frustrate teachers. The
most common problems are:
• the technical Difficulties (burnt-out bulb in
projector to screen freeze in the middle of a
presentation),
• the server being down, and
• broken links on research pages.
CALL –
computer assisted language learning
• is one innovative approach to language
learning
• ‘situates the learner next to a corpus of
authentic material with a search engine and a
task’
• diverges from our common experience of
language learning
• It is also important for the teachers to
understand that they are no longer going to be
the center of the classroom. The students are
able to work independently with the teacher
being there to monitor.
• References:
• http://lmcjuniors.wordpress.com/2012/04/15/2
-4-principles-of-technology-use-in-educationalsettings-breanna/
• http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1transitional.dtd
• http://www.iccb.org/student/resource/technol
ogy/challenges.html