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Topicality ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Resolution.................................................................................................................................... 2
Generic Terms ................................................................................................................................. 3
Resolved: Mandates Action ......................................................................................................... 4
The United States Federal Government (USFG) .......................................................................... 5
Should: Expresses Duty ............................................................................................................... 7
Its ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Substantially =/= Quantitative..................................................................................................... 9
Substantially = Quantitative ...................................................................................................... 12
Substantial: Specific Values ....................................................................................................... 13
Increase: Doesn’t Require Pre-existence .................................................................................. 14
Increase: Requires Pre-existence .............................................................................................. 16
Increase: FX T............................................................................................................................. 18
And/Or ....................................................................................................................................... 19
Topic Specific ................................................................................................................................. 20
Space Exploration: 4 Areas ........................................................................................................ 21
Space Exploration: Only Human Presence ................................................................................ 22
Space Exploration: Includes Robotics ........................................................................................ 24
Space Development: includes Research and Development ...................................................... 26
Beyond Earth’s mesosphere ...................................................................................................... 27
Beyond the Earth’s Mesosphere Shell....................................................................................... 29
Specific Affs ............................................................................................................................... 31
Space Exploration: Includes Tourism/Col .................................................................................. 32
Space Exploration: Definition is Fluctuating.............................................................................. 33
Space Exploration: Includes Study of the Earth and Energy Sources ........................................ 35
Space Exploration: includes R and D for new Transportation ................................................... 36
Space Exploration: Includes Study of Human Life ..................................................................... 37
Preliminary research qualifies as exploration ........................................................................... 39
Exploration includes Satellites................................................................................................... 41
Mars is Space Exploration ......................................................................................................... 42
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Resolution
Resolved: The United States Federal Government should substantially increase
its exploration and/or development of space beyond the Earth’s mesosphere.
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Generic Terms
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Resolved: Mandates Action
Resolved is a firm decision
The New Oxford American Dictionary 2005 "resolution n” , second edition. Ed.
Erin McKean. Oxford University Press, 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford
University Press.
http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t183
.e65284
a firm decision to do or not to do something: she kept her resolution not to see Anne any more
a New Year's resolution
Resolved is to take action
The New Oxford American Dictionary, 2005"resolution n." , second edition. Ed.
Erin McKean. Oxford University Press, 2005. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford
University Press.
http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t183
.e65284
the action of solving a problem, dispute, or contentious matter: the peaceful resolution of all
disputes | a successful resolution to the problem
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The United States Federal Government (USFG)
Federal government is central government, not individual states
Webster’s Dictionary
UNABRIDGED, p. 833.
Federal government. Of or relating to the central government of a nation, having the character
of a federation as distinguished from the governments of the constituent unites (as states or
provinces).
The USFG is the national government consisting of three branches
Britannica Online Encyclopedia, 2006,
Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.,
http://www.britannica.com/search?query=Federal+Government&ct=
The government of the United States, established by the Constitution, is a federal republic of
50 states, a few territories and some protectorates. The national government consists of the
executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The head of the executive branch is the President
of the United States. The legislative branch consists of the United States Congress, while the
Supreme Court of the United States is the head of the judicial branch. The federal legal system is
based on statutory law, while most state and territorial law is based on English common law,
with the exception of Louisiana and Puerto Rico. The United States accepts compulsory ICJ
jurisdiction, with reservations of the federal republic.
The USFG is the central authority and sovereignty of the US
The Columbia Encyclopedia 2001,
Sixth Edition, http://www.bartleby.com/65/fe/federalg.html
The United States federal government of a union of states in which sovereignty is divided
between a central authority and component state authorities.
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“United States federal government” is a combination of agencies
Encarta World Online Encyclopedia, 2006,
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_1741500781/United_States_(Government
).html
United States Government, the combination of federal, state, and local laws, bodies, and
agencies that is responsible for carrying out the operations of the United States. The federal
government of the United States is centered in Washington, D.C.
“United States federal government” is a national government
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2002,
Merriam-Webster Inc. Collegiate, Tenth Edition http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary
A federation of states especially when forming a nation in a usually specified territory
“United States federal government” is a governing system concerning the entire
nation
Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 2002,
Merriam-Webster Inc. Collegiate, Tenth Edition http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary
The United States federal government is the area in a governing system concerned with areas
that affect the entire nation, such as defense, international relations, taxation, and trade.
"United States" means the sovereign state called the "United States"
Ballentine's 95 (Legal Dictionary and Thesaurus, p. 689)
a sovereign nation or sovereign state called the “United States”
"United States" means the territory over which the sovereign nation of the
"United States" exercises sovereign power
Ballentine's 95 (Legal Dictionary and Thesaurus, p. 689)
the territory over which this sovereign nation called the “United States” exercises sovereign
power
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Should: Expresses Duty
Should means must
Dictionary.com ’11 (Random House, Inc., 2011,
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/should)
must; ought (used to indicate duty, propriety, or expediency
Should expresses duty – most predictable def.
Dictionary.com ’11 (Random House, Inc., 2011,
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/should)
Rules similar to those for choosing between shall and will have long been advanced for should
and would, but again the rules have had little effect on usage. In most constructions, would is
the auxiliary chosen regardless of the person of the subject: If our allies would support the move,
we would abandon any claim to sovereignty. You would be surprised at the complexity of the
directions. Because the main function of should in modern American English is to express duty,
necessity, etc. (You should get your flu shot before winter comes), its use for other purposes, as
to form a subjunctive, can produce ambiguity, at least initially: I should get my flu shot if I were
you. Furthermore, should seems an affectation to many Americans when used in certain
constructions quite common in British English: Had I been informed, I should (American would)
have called immediately. I should (American would) really prefer a different arrangement. As
with shall and will, most educated native speakers of American English do not follow the
textbook rule in making a choice between should and would. See also shall.
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Its
‘Its’ is possessive
English Grammar 5 (Glossary of English Grammar Terms,
http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/possessive-pronoun.html)
Mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs are the possessive pronouns used to substitute a noun and to
show possession or ownership. EG. This is your disk and that's mine. (Mine substitutes the word disk and
shows that it belongs to me.)
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Substantially =/= Quantitative
Substantially must be given meaning --- contextual uses are key
Devinsky 2 (Paul, “Is Claim "Substantially" Definite? Ask Person of Skill in the Art”, IP Update,
5(11), November,
http://www.mwe.com/index.cfm/fuseaction/publications.nldetail/object_id/c2c73bdb-9b1a42bf-a2b7-075812dc0e2d.cfm)
In reversing a summary judgment of invalidity, the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
found that the district court, by failing to look beyond the intrinsic claim construction evidence
to consider what a person of skill in the art would understand in a "technologic context,"
erroneously concluded the term "substantially" made a claim fatally indefinite. Verve, LLC v.
Crane Cams, Inc., Case No. 01-1417 (Fed. Cir. November 14, 2002). The patent in suit related to
an improved push rod for an internal combustion engine. The patent claims a hollow push rod
whose overall diameter is larger at the middle than at the ends and has "substantially constant
wall thickness" throughout the rod and rounded seats at the tips. The district court found that
the expression "substantially constant wall thickness" was not supported in the specification and
prosecution history by a sufficiently clear definition of "substantially" and was, therefore,
indefinite. The district court recognized that the use of the term "substantially" may be definite
in some cases but ruled that in this case it was indefinite because it was not further defined. The
Federal Circuit reversed, concluding that the district court erred in requiring that the meaning of
the term "substantially" in a particular "technologic context" be found solely in intrinsic
evidence: "While reference to intrinsic evidence is primary in interpreting claims, the criterion is
the meaning of words as they would be understood by persons in the field of the
invention." Thus, the Federal Circuit instructed that "resolution of any ambiguity arising from
the claims and specification may be aided by extrinsic evidence of usage and meaning of a term
in the context of the invention." The Federal Circuit remanded the case to the district court with
instruction that "[t]he question is not whether the word 'substantially' has a fixed meaning as
applied to 'constant wall thickness,' but how the phrase would be understood by persons
experienced in this field of mechanics, upon reading the patent documents."
‘Substantial’ is ambiguous, set a high threshold for rejecting Plan
Stark 97 (Stephen J., “Key Words And Tricky Phrases: An Analysis Of Patent Drafter's Attempts
To Circumvent The Language Of 35 U.S.C.”, Journal of Intellectual Property Law, Fall, 5 J. Intell.
Prop. L. 365, Lexis)
1. Ordinary Meaning. First, words in a patent are to be given their ordinary meaning unless
otherwise defined. 30 However, what if a particular word has multiple meanings? For example,
consider the word "substantial." The Webster dictionary gives eleven different definitions of
the word substantial. 31 Additionally, there are another two definitions specifically provided for
the adverb "substantially." 32 Thus, the "ordinary meaning" is not clear. The first definition of
the word "substantial" given by the Webster's Dictionary is "of ample or considerable amount,
quantity, size, etc." 33 Supposing that this is the precise definition that the drafter had in mind
when drafting the patent, the meaning of "ample or considerable amount" appears amorphous.
This could have one of at least the following interpretations: (1) almost all, (2) more than half,
or (3) barely enough to do the job. Therefore, the use of a term, such as "substantial," which
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usually has a very ambiguous meaning, makes the scope of protection particularly hard to
determine.
"Substantial" means of real worth or considerable value; this is the usual and
customary meaning of the term
Words and Phrases 2 (Volume 40A, p. 458)
D.S.C. 1966. The word “substantial” within Civil Rights Act providing that a place is a public
accommodation if a “substantial” portion of food which is served has moved in commerce must be
construed in light of its usual and customary meaning, that is, something of real worth and importance;
of considerable value; valuable, something worthwhile as distinguished from something without value or
merely nominal
“Substantial” means considerable or to a large degree; this common meaning is
preferable because the word is not a term of art
Arkush 2 (David, JD Candidate – Harvard University, “Preserving "Catalyst" Attorneys' Fees
Under the Freedom of Information Act in the Wake of Buckhannon Board and Care Home v.
West Virginia Department of Health and Human Resources”, Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties
Law Review, Winter,
37 Harv. C.R.-C.L. L. Rev. 131)
Plaintiffs should argue that the term "substantially prevail" is not a term of art because if
considered a term of art, resort to Black's 7th produces a definition of "prevail" that could be
interpreted adversely to plaintiffs. 99 It is commonly accepted that words that are not legal
terms of art should be accorded their ordinary, not their legal, meaning, 100 and ordinaryusage dictionaries provide FOIA fee claimants with helpful arguments. The Supreme Court has
already found favorable, temporally relevant definitions of the word "substantially" in
ordinary dictionaries: "Substantially" suggests "considerable" or "specified to a large degree."
See Webster's Third New International Dictionary 2280 (1976) (defining "substantially" as "in a
substantial manner" and "substantial" as "considerable in amount, value, or worth" and "being
that specified to a large degree or in the main"); see also 17 Oxford English Dictionary 66-67 (2d
ed. 1989) ("substantial": "relating to or proceeding from the essence of a thing; essential"; "of
ample or considerable amount, quantity or dimensions"). 101
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Substantial means “of considerable amount”, not some contrived percentage
Prost 4 (Judge – United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, “Committee For Fairly
Traded Venezuelan Cement v. United States”, 6-18,
http://www.ll.georgetown.edu/federal/judicial/fed/opinions/04opinions/04-1016.html)
The URAA and the SAA neither amend nor refine the language of § 1677(4)(C). In fact, they
merely suggest, without disqualifying other alternatives, a “clearly higher/substantial
proportion” approach. Indeed, the SAA specifically mentions that no “precise mathematical
formula” or “‘benchmark’ proportion” is to be used for a dumping concentration analysis. SAA
at 860 (citations omitted); see also Venez. Cement, 279 F. Supp. 2d at 1329-30. Furthermore, as
the Court of International Trade noted, the SAA emphasizes that the Commission retains the
discretion to determine concentration of imports on a “case-by-case basis.” SAA at 860. Finally,
the definition of the word “substantial” undercuts the CFTVC’s argument. The word “substantial”
generally means “considerable in amount, value or worth.” Webster’s Third New International
Dictionary 2280 (1993). It does not imply a specific number or a cutoff. What may be substantial
in one situation may not be in another situation. The very breadth of the term “substantial”
undercuts the CFTVC’s argument that Congress spoke clearly in establishing a standard for the
Commission’s regional antidumping and countervailing duty analyses. It therefore supports the
conclusion that the Commission is owed deference in its interpretation of “substantial
proportion.” The Commission clearly embarked on its analysis having been given considerable
leeway to interpret a particularly broad term.
Substantial means considerable in quantity
Merriam-Webster, 2003 (www.m-w.com)
Main Entry: sub·stan·tial
substantial wage>
b : considerable in quantity : significantly great <earned a
Substantially means to a great extent or considerably
Wordnet, 2003 (Princeton University, version 2.0,
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/substantially)
substantially
adv 1: to a great extent or degree; "I'm afraid the film was well over budget"; "painting the
room white made it seem considerably (or substantially) larger"; "the house has fallen
considerably in value"; "the price went up substantially" [syn: well, considerably] 2: in a strong
substantial way; "the house was substantially built.”
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Substantially = Quantitative
substantial increase is at least 30%
Bryson, 2001, Circuit Judge, US Court of Appeals Federal Circuit
265 F.3d 1371; 2001 U.S. App. LEXIS 20590; 60 U.S.P.Q.2D (BNA) 1272, 9/19, lexis)
The term "to increase substantially" in claim 1 of the '705 patent refers to the claimed increase
achieved by the invention in the relative productivity of the catalyst used in the Fischer-Tropsch
process. The specification defines "substantially increased" catalyst activity or productivity as
an increase of at least about 30%, more preferably an increase of about 50%, and still more
preferably an increase of about 75%. '705 patent, col. 1, ll. 59-63. Based on that language from
the specification, the trial court found, and the parties agree, that the term "to increase
substantially" requires an increase of at least about 30% in the relative productivity of the
catalyst. Notwithstanding that numerical boundary, the trial court found the phrase "to increase
substantially" to be indefinite because the court concluded that there were two possible ways to
calculate the increase in productivity, the subtraction method and the division method, and the
patent did not make clear which of those ways was used in the claim.
substantially is at least 90%
Words and Phrases, 2005 (v. 40B, p. 329)
N.H. 1949. The word “substantially” as used in provision of Unemployment Compensation Act
that experience rating of an employer may be transferred to an employing unit which acquires
the organization, trade, or business, or “substantially” all of the assets thereof, is an elastic term
which does not include a definite, fixed amount of percentage, and the transfer does not have
to be 100 per cent but cannot be less than 90 per cent in the ordinary situation. R.L. c 218, § 6,
subd. F, as added by Laws 1945, c.138, § 16.
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Substantial: Specific Values
Substantial is an increase of at least $679 million-empirically proven
AAAS ‘2 (Advancing Science, Serving Society,10/16/2002, “House Boosts NASA
Request, Adds Earmarks and Outer Planets Missions”
http://www.aaas.org/spp/rd/nasa03h.pdf)
Two-thirds of the NASA budget, which excludes the Space Shuttle program and its associated
costs, is classified as R&D. NASA’s R&D would total $10.9 billion in the House plan, slightly
above the Senate allocation, a substantial $697 million or 6.9 percent above FY 2002, and $258
million above the request. Because the Space Shuttle program and other non-R&D programs
would decline, the total NASA budget of $15.3 billion would show a smaller increase (up 2.7
percent). (For details of the Senate appropriation for NASA R&D, see the August 6 AAAS R&D
Funding Update. For details of the request for NASA, see Chapter 10 of AAAS Report XXVII: R&D
FY 2003).
A substantial increase is in billions; defined contextually
AAAS ‘2 (Advancing Science, Serving Society,10/16/2002, “House Boosts NASA
Request, Adds Earmarks and Outer Planets Missions”
http://www.aaas.org/spp/rd/nasa03h.pdf)
The Science, Aeronautics, and Technology (SAT) account, which funds nearly all of NASA’s R&D
not related to the Space Station, would receive $9.1 billion, 13.6 percent or $1.1 billion above
the FY 2002 funding level. This substantial increase would go primarily to the Space Science and
the Aero-Space Technology Programs, as in the Senate proposal.
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Increase: Doesn’t Require Pre-existence
Increase doesn’t require pre-existence; just requires making something greater.
Reinhardt 5 (U.S. Judge for the UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT
(Stephen, JASON RAY REYNOLDS; MATTHEW RAUSCH, Plaintiffs-Appellants, v. HARTFORD
FINANCIAL SERVICES GROUP, INC.; HARTFORD FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, DefendantsAppellees., lexis)
Specifically, we must decide whether charging a higher price for initial insurance than the
insured would otherwise have been charged because of information in a consumer credit report
constitutes an "increase in any charge" within the meaning of FCRA. First, we examine the
definitions of "increase" and "charge." Hartford Fire contends that, limited to their ordinary
definitions, these words apply only when a consumer has previously been charged for insurance
and that charge has thereafter been increased by the insurer. The phrase, "has previously been
charged," as used by Hartford, refers not only to a rate that the consumer has previously paid
for insurance but also to a rate that the consumer has previously been quoted, even if that rate
was increased [**23] before the consumer made any payment. Reynolds disagrees, asserting
that, under [*1091] the ordinary definition of the term, an increase in a charge also occurs
whenever an insurer charges a higher rate than it would otherwise have charged because of any
factor--such as adverse credit information, age, or driving record 8 --regardless of whether the
customer was previously charged some other rate. According to Reynolds, he was charged an
increased rate because of his credit rating when he was compelled to pay a rate higher than the
premium rate because he failed to obtain a high insurance score. Thus, he argues, the
definitions of "increase" and "charge" encompass the insurance companies' practice. Reynolds is
correct.
“Increase" means to make something greater. See, e.g., OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY (2d ed.
1989) ("The action, process, or fact of becoming or making greater; augmentation, growth,
enlargement, extension."); WEBSTER'S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH (3d
college ed. 1988) (defining "increase" as "growth, enlargement, etc[.]"). "Charge" means the
price demanded for goods or services. See, e.g., OXFORD ENGLISH DICTIONARY (2d ed. 1989)
("The price required or demanded for service rendered, or (less usually) for goods supplied.");
WEBSTER'S NEW WORLD DICTIONARY OF AMERICAN ENGLISH (3d college ed. 1988) ("The cost
or price of an article, service, etc."). Nothing in the definition of these words implies that the
term "increase in any charge for" should be limited to cases in which a company raises the rate
that an individual has previously been charged.
Increase can include an extension of time duration, does not require a renewal
of a program
Word and Phrases 8 (vol. 20B, p. 265)
Me. 1922. Within Workmen’s Compensation Act, § 36, providing for review of any agreement,
award, findings, or decree, and that member of Commission may increase, diminish, or
discontinue compensation, an “increase” may include an extension of the time of the award. –
Graney’s Case, 118 A. 369, 121 Me.500.—Work Comp 2049.
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Increase: Requires Pre-existence
Increase requires making an already existing program greater, a new program is
not topical
Buckley 6 (Jeremiah, Attorney, Amicus Curiae Brief, Safeco Ins. Co. of America et al v. Charles
Burr et al, http://supreme.lp.findlaw.com/supreme_court/briefs/06-84/0684.mer.ami.mica.pdf)
First, the court said that the ordinary meaning of the word “increase” is “to make something
greater,” which it believed should not “be limited to cases in which a company raises the rate
that an individual has previously been charged.” 435 F.3d at 1091. Yet the definition offered by
the Ninth Circuit compels the opposite conclusion. Because “increase” means “to make
something greater,” there must necessarily have been an existing premium, to which Edo’s
actual premium may be compared, to determine whether an “increase” occurred. Congress
could have provided that “ad-verse action” in the insurance context means charging an amount
greater than the optimal premium, but instead chose to define adverse action in terms of an
“increase.” That def-initional choice must be respected, not ignored. See Colautti v. Franklin,
439 U.S. 379, 392-93 n.10 (1979) (“[a] defin-ition which declares what a term ‘means’ . . .
excludes any meaning that is not stated”). Next, the Ninth Circuit reasoned that because the
Insurance Prong includes the words “existing or applied for,” Congress intended that an
“increase in any charge” for insurance must “apply to all insurance transactions – from an initial
policy of insurance to a renewal of a long-held policy.” 435 F.3d at 1091. This interpretation
reads the words “exist-ing or applied for” in isolation. Other types of adverse action described
in the Insurance Prong apply only to situations where a consumer had an existing policy of
insurance, such as a “cancellation,” “reduction,” or “change” in insurance. Each of these forms
of adverse action presupposes an already-existing policy, and under usual canons of statutory
construction the term “increase” also should be construed to apply to increases of an alreadyexisting policy. See Hibbs v. Winn, 542 U.S. 88, 101 (2004) (“a phrase gathers meaning from
the words around it”) (citation omitted).
Increase requires pre-existence; can’t determine something has been ‘made
greater’ without reference to the previous condition
Brown 3 (US Federal Judge – District Court of Oregon (Elena Mark and Paul Gustafson, Plaintiffs,
v. Valley Insurance Company and Valley Property and Casualty, Defendants, 7-17, Lexis)
FCRA does not define the term "increase." The plain and ordinary meaning of the verb "to
increase" is to make something greater or larger. 4 Merriam-Webster's [**22] Collegiate
Dictionary 589 (10th ed. 1998). The "something" that is increased in the statute is the "charge
for any insurance." The plain and common meaning of the noun "charge" is "the price
demanded for something." Id. at 192. Thus, the statute plainly means an insurer takes adverse
action if the insurer makes greater (i.e., larger) the price demanded for insurance.
An insurer cannot "make greater" something that did not exist previously. The statutory
definition of adverse action, therefore, clearly anticipates an insurer must have made an initial
charge or demand for payment before the insurer can increase that charge. In other words, an
insurer cannot increase the charge for insurance unless the insurer previously set and
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demanded payment of the premium for that insured's insurance [**23] coverage at a lower
price.
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Increase: FX T
‘Increase’ refers to a process, not an outcome; the plan itself must increase
exploration and/or development, not simply lead to it
HEFC 4 (Higher Education Funding Council,
http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/jt200304/jtselect/jtchar/1 67/167we98.htm# n43)
9.1 The Draft Bill creates an obligation on the principal regulator to do all that it "reasonably can
to meet the compliance objective in relation to the charity".[ 45] The Draft Bill defines the
compliance objective as "to increase compliance by the charity trustees with their legal
obligations in exercising control and management of the administration of the charity".[ 46] 9.2
Although the word "increase" is used in relation to the functions of a number of statutory
bodies,[47] such examples demonstrate that "increase" is used in relation to considerations to be
taken into account in the exercise of a function, rather than an objective in itself. 9.3 HEFCE is
concerned that an obligation on principal regulators to "increase" compliance per se is unworkable, in
so far as it does not adequately define the limits or nature of the statutory duty. Indeed, the obligation
could be considered to be ever-increasing.
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And/Or
And/or means one or the other or both
Words and Phrases 07
Volume 3A, page 220, 2007
C.A.1 (Mass.) 1981. Words “and/or,” for contract purposes, commonly mean the one or the
other or both. Local Division 589 Amalgamated Transit Union, AFL-CIO, CLC v. Com. of Mass.,
666 F.2d 618, certiorari denied Local Div. 589, Amalgamated Transit Union AFL-CIO v.
Massa¬chusetts, 102 S.C!. 2928, 457 U.S. 1117, 73 L.Ed.2d 1329.-Contracts 159.
“And/or” denotes that items joined by it can be taken as alternatives or
together
Oxford English Dictionary 08
Draft Revision, June, Online Edition, accessed August 1, 2008
f. and/or (also and or): a formula denoting that the items joined by it can be taken either
together or as alternatives. Cf. either/or at EITHER adv. 3c.
“And/or” has significance in law and policy. It allows the use of both “and” and
“or” interchangeably for a group of terms
Ballentine’s Law Dictionary 69
3d. ed, 1969, p. 73
In statutes, however, the use of the expression “and/or” has been considered to have a
significance, the view being that the intention of the legislature in using the expression is that
the word “and” and the word “or” are to be construed as used interchangeably. 50 Am
Jurisprudence 1st Statutes.
“And/or” has no definite meaning.
Ballentine’s Law Dictionary 69
3d. ed, 1969, p. 73
[And/or is] something of a monstrosity in the English language, used by draftsmen out of an
over-abundance of caution. So indefinite as to render an administrative order inoperative or
unenforceable for lack of certainty. 2 Am Jurisprudence 2d Administrative Law § 462.
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Topic Specific
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Space Exploration: 4 Areas
4 areas of space exploration- from US Space Exploration Policy (Vision for Space
Exploration 2004):
VSE 04
http://www.space.commerce.gov/general/nationalspacepolicy/2004-VSE.pdf
The Administrator of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration will be responsible for the plans,
programs, and activities required to implement this vision, in coordination with other agencies, as deemed appropriate. The
will plan and implement an integrated, long-term robotic and human exploration
program structured with measurable milestones and executed on the basis of available resources, accumulated
experience, and technology readiness. To implement this vision, the Administrator will conduct the following activities
and take other actions as required: A. Exploration Activities in Low Earth Orbit Space
Shuttle • Return the Space Shuttle to flight as soon as practical, based on the recommendations of the Columbia Accident Investigation Board; •
Administrator
Focus use of the Space Shuttle to complete assembly of the International Space Station; and • Retire the Space Shuttle as soon as assembly of the
International Space Station
International Space Station is completed, planned for the end of this decade ;
• Complete assembly of
the International Space Station, including the U.S. components that support U.S. space exploration goals and those provided by foreign partners,
planned for the end of this decade; Focus U.S. research and use of the International Space Station on supporting space exploration goals, with emphasis
on understanding how the space environment affects astronaut health and capabilities and developing countermeasures; and • Conduct International
Space Station activities in a manner consistent with U.S. obligations contained in the agreements between the United States and other partners in the
B. Space Exploration Beyond Low Earth Orbit The Moon
International Space Station.
• Undertake lunar
exploration activities to enable sustained human and robotic exploration of Mars and more distant destinations in the solar system; • Starting no later
than 2008, initiate a series of robotic missions to the Moon to prepare for and support future human exploration activities; • Conduct the first
extended human expedition to the lunar surface as early as 2015, but no later than the year 2020; and • Use lunar exploration activities to further
science, and to develop and test new approaches, technologies, and systems, including use of lunar and other space resources, to support sustained
Mars and Other Destinations
human space exploration to Mars and other destinations.
• Conduct robotic exploration of Mars to
search for evidence of life, to understand the history of the solar system, and to prepare for future human exploration; • Conduct robotic exploration
across the solar system for scientific purposes and to support human exploration. In particular, explore Jupiter’s moons, asteroids and other bodies to
search for evidence of life, to understand the history of the solar system, and to search for resources; • Conduct advanced telescope searches for Earthlike planets and habitable environments around other stars; • Develop and demonstrate power generation, propulsion, life support, and other key
capabilities required to support more distant, more capable, and/or longer duration human and robotic exploration of Mars and other destinations;
and • Conduct human expeditions to Mars after acquiring adequate knowledge about the planet using robotic missions and after successfully
C. Space Transportation Capabilities Supporting
Exploration • Develop a new crew exploration vehicle to provide crew transportation for missions beyond low Earth orbit;
demonstrating sustained human exploration missions to the Moon.
� Conduct the initial test flight before the end of this decade in order to provide an operational capability to support human exploration missions no
later than 2014; • Separate to the maximum practical extent crew from cargo transportation to the International Space Station and for launching
exploration missions beyond low Earth orbit; � Acquire cargo transportation as soon as practical and affordable to support missions to and from the
International Space Station; and � Acquire crew transportation to and from the International Space Station, as required, after the Space Shuttle is
D. International and Commercial Participation • Pursue opportunities for
international participation to support U.S. space exploration goals; and • Pursue commercial
opportunities for providing transportation and other services supporting the International Space Station and exploration
retired from service.
missions beyond low Earth orbit.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Exploration: Only Human Presence
Exploration is only human space travel; robotic missions aren’t topical
Wright 8 (Edward, Project Manager – Teachers in Space, Former President – X-Rocket, LLC, and
Programming Writer – Microsoft Corporation, Comment on “A Move Against ‘Mars Mission
Funding’”, Space Politics, 6-28, http://www.spacepolitics.com/2006/06/28/a-move-againstmars-mission-funding/)
Unmanned missions are not exploration, they are merely reconnaissance. The dictionary
defines exploration as “travel for purposes of discovery.” Sitting in a control room looking at
pictures of Mars on a TV set is not exploration because it does not involve travel.
Calling unmanned space “exploration” and unmanned probes “spaceships” is just an attempt to
co-opt the language.
Mark further confuses the issue by defined “space exploration” to mean only missions
conducted by NASA, ignoring the fact that the private sector is also working on space
exploration.
Even if “exploration” can include robots, it must also have a human component
Ehrenfreud 10 (P., Space Policy Institute – George Washington University, et al., “Cross-Cultural
Management Supporting Global Space Exploration”, Acta Astronautica, 66(1-2), JanuaryFebruary, p. 245)
1 The European Space Agency ESA defines exploration as the ``travel through [and to] an
unfamiliar area in order to learn about it'' and space exploration as ``extending access and a
sustainable presence for humans in the Earth–Moon–Mars space, including the Lagrangian
points and near-Earth objects'' [1]. In this paper we adopt this definition of space exploration
to explore robotically and later with humans neighboring planets and small bodies of our solar
system.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space exploration is the expansion of human influence in space, includes
building capacity for expanding human influence
Sabathier 9 (Vincent G., Senior Associate in the Technology and Public Policy Program – Center
for Strategic and International Studies, “The Role of NASA 40 Years after the Lunar Landing”, 720, http://csis.org/publication/role-nasa-40-years-after-lunar-landing)
Space exploration is the expansion of human influence in space. This definition of exploration
is inherently one of capacity building. Human influence in space is a measure of our ability to
do useful things beyond the Earth’s surface. In order to do something useful, there has to be
some sort of human presence—either humans themselves or their robotic proxies. Once some
measure of human influence has been established at some destination in space, there are two
ways a space exploration agency can expand that influence. First, the agency can decrease the
costs and increase the benefits of human influence at a given location until such influence
becomes sufficiently useful that it is economically self-sustaining, at which point continued
use of agency resources is unnecessary. Alternately, human influence can be extended to
some new place that may in the future become home to some form of self-supporting human
influence. The key element is that such a mandate compels each step to build on past
accomplishments and lay the groundwork for future missions.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Exploration: Includes Robotics
Space exploration is both human and robotic
United States Space Policy, 2010 (Opportunities and challenges, George Abbey and Neal
Lane.)
Within NASA, science and the human exploration of space should go hand-in-hand. Study of
the effects of zero gravity on human physiology is one obvious example of important research
that can be done on the space station. Humans in space can be called upon to do things that
otherwise would be very difficult, for example the successful repair and upgrade missions to
the Hubble Space Telescope. Nonetheless, most planetary and astronomical scientific
investigation can be done best through robotic exploration, as proven in the exploration of
the surface of Mars. NASA’s recent change in leadership does give cause for encouragement.
Michael Griffin, the new NASA Administrator, brings to the position an excellent technical and
program management background. He is already giv- ing consideration to reinstituting the Space
Shuttle servicing mission to the Hubble telescope and is addressing the need to preclude any
gap between the last flight of the Space Shuttle and the availability of a capable and proven new
manned spacecraft. He has also recognized the need for a balanced pro- gram that addresses
science, exploration, aeronautics, and research. Achieving a balanced program within a limited
budget will, however, be a formidable and daunting task.
Exploration includes both robotic and human activities
Brook 10 (Richard, Consultant – Surrey Satellite Technology, et al., “Space Exploration, A New
European Flagship Programme”, Space Advisory Group, 10-10,
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/newsroom/cf/_getdocument.cfm?doc_id=6195)
The relevance of space in the new TFEU should be reflected in space policies and programmes
with the appropriate budgets by extending the scope and ambitions of the EU contribution.
There are many reasons that justify the need to devote additional EU resources to Space
exploration. In this document, the term "space exploration" refers to "the combination of
robotic and human activities for the discovery of extra-terrestrial environments that will open
up new frontiers for the acquisition of knowledge and peaceful expansion of humankind”.
The broad scope of this definition requires that the EU prioritise the proposed activities to be
addressed in line with the potential financial envelope and technological capabilities.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Limiting “exploration” to only human travel is outdated
Lester 9 (Daniel F., Professor of Astronomy – University of Texas, and Michael Robinson,
Professor of History – Hillyer College, “Visions of Exploration”, Space Policy, 25(4), November, p.
236)
The word ‘‘exploration’’ threads its way through every discussion of human space flight and
often headlines national policy statements about the US space agency. Yet this concept, so
rooted in our culture, remains remarkably ill-defined. In this paper, we examine various
presumptions implicit in the term and its ramifications for federally supported space endeavors.
We argue that historical examples of exploration, widely used by policy makers, often make
poor models for contemporary space travel. In particular, historical precedents of exploration
set up a land-biased view of discovery, a restriction which impedes full expression of the
Vision for Space Exploration and its possible scientific returns. These same precedents also set
up a view of discovery that is biased toward in situ human presence, a view that modern
technology is rendering increasingly absurd.
Exploration can be purely robotic
Lester, July 5. (Dan, writer for the Space Review, 2011).
http://www.thespacereview.com/article/1877/1
In the long debate about human space exploration—how to achieve it, and what it’s for—
telerobotics is increasingly important. Can exploration be carried out using “dumb” but
sophisticated electromechanical extensions of our dexterity and senses that put humans
virtually at a remote site? The virtual presence achieved that way is as “real” as the fidelity
with which our dexterity and senses can be electromechanically communicated. For vision and
hearing (to the extent the latter is necessary in space), our new technologies can do this relaying,
and can easily surpass that of human eyes and ears in doing so. For smell and taste (again, if
necessary), sensors are available that can quantitatively distinguish among a large range of
substances. Haptic arrays are beginning to allow humans to “feel” things remotely. Precision
dexterous manipulators are in regular commercial use. Transcontinental surgery, as we do now
remotely, allowing delicate incisions, stitching, and even tying of knots, suggests that
telerobotically picking up rocks and turning screwdrivers shouldn’t be that hard. These
capabilities are seriously degraded for a human in a spacesuit. So why do we need humans
around? Humans are essential to exploration. However, technology has now advanced to the
point that we can wonder how much humans have to physically be there to do it. As
emphasized by many commentators, the word “exploration” is a slippery one for space.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Development: includes Research and Development
Space development includes R+D and activities to facilitate exploration
SDPA 5 (Space Development Promotion Act of the Republic of Korea, Journal of Space Law, 33,
5-31, http://www.spacelaw.olemiss.edu/library/space/Korea/Laws/33jsl175.pdf)
Article 2 (Definitions)
Definitions of terms used in this Act are as follows:
(a) The term “space development” means one of the following:
(i) Research and technology development activities related to design,
production, launch, operation, etc. of space objects;
(ii) Use and exploration of outer space and activities to facilitate them ;
(b) The term “space development project” means a project to promote space development or a
project to pursue the development of education, technology, information, industry, etc.
related to space development;
(c) The term “space object” means an object designed and manufactured for use in outer
space, including a launch vehicle, a satellite, a space ship and their components;
(d) The term “space accident” means an occurrence of damage to life, body or property due to
crash, collision or explosion of a space object or other situation;
(e) The term “satellite information” means image, voice, sound or data acquired by using a
satellite, or in formation made of their combination, including processed or applied information.
Space Development contextually refers to R+D, testing, and evaluation
Rau 99 (Russell A., Assistant Inspector General, “Earned Value Management at NASA”, Audit
Report, 9-30, http://oig.nasa.gov/audits/reports/FY99/pdfs/ig-99-058.pdf)
2 NASA is substituting the word “development” for “research, development, test, and
evaluation” in the subsequent
version of NPD 9501.3.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Beyond Earth’s mesosphere
There are different definitions for the boundary of space. National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) uses flight above 80 km to designate individuals as
astronauts, while the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale uses the 100 km Karman line as
the internationally accepted boundary to space. Beyond this altitude, aerodynamic flight is not
possible, and spacecraft must travel faster than orbital velocity to manoeuvre and remain in
orbit.
Topical action must be in the thermosphere or higher
Atmospheric Chemistry Glossary 11 (Sam Houston State University,
http://www.shsu.edu/~chm_tgc/Glossary/lmn.html#M)
Mesosphere - In the atmosphere, the region immediately above the stratosphere
and immediately below the thermosphere. The mesosphere begins about 50
kilometers high at the stratopause and ends about 80 kilometers high at the
mesopause. The temperature in the mesosphere decreases sharply with increased altitude.
[Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences; v49n24; 2353-2371; 1992.] [Introduction to Meteorology;
F.W. Cole; page 7; 1980; John Wiley and Sons New York.]
80 kilometers and above is topical
OED 11 (Compact Oxford English Dictionary, “mesosphere”,
http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/mesosphere?view=uk)
the region of the earth's atmosphere above the stratosphere and below the
thermosphere, between about 50 and 80 km in altitude.
Aff’s must explore/develop in the ionosphere or higher
Zoom Astronomy Glossary 10
(http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/glossary/indexm.sht
ml#mesosphere)
MESOSPHERE
The mesosphere is the atmospheric layer between the stratosphere and the
ionosphere. The mesosphere is characterized by temperatures that quickly decrease as height
increases. The mesosphere extends from between 31 and 50 miles (17 to 80
kilometers) above the earth's surface.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
50 miles or higher
Glossary of Air Pollution Terms 10 (http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm#mesosphere)
Mesosphere
The layer of the Earth's atmosphere above the stratosphere and below the thermosphere. It is
between 35 and 60 miles from the Earth.
Mesophere is defined by an upper temperature minimum
National Weather Service 9 (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
National Weather Service Glossary,
http://www.nws.noaa.gov/glossary/index.php?letter=m)
Mesosphere
The atmospheric shell between about 20 km and about 70 to 80 km, extending from
the top of the stratosphere (the stratopause) to the upper temperature minimum
that defines the mesopause (the base of the thermosphere).
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Beyond the Earth’s Mesosphere Shell
“Beyond” means outside the limits of
Collins 9 (Collins English Dictionary Unabridged, “beyond”,
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/beyond)
-- prep
1. at or to a point on the other side of; at or to the further side
of: beyond those hills there is a river
2. outside the limits or scope of: beyond this country's jurisdiction
That means activities must occur above 50 miles from the Earth’s surface
WC 11 (Weather Channel – Weather Glossary, “M”, http://www.weather.com/glossary/m.html)
MESOSPHERE
The layer of the atmosphere located between the stratosphere and
the ionosphere, wheretemperatures drop rapidly with increasing height. It extends between
31 and 50 miles (17 to 80 kilometers) above the earth's surface.
Violation --- the plan increases [exploration/development] less than 50 miles
from the surface
Voting issue --1. Limits --- a strict interpretation of “beyond the mesosphere” is the only way
to prevent an explosion of Affs that expand research into other areas, like highaltitude testing, non-space rockets, aerospace, etc. --- making research
impossible
WNDI 2011
Topicality
2. Ground --- the mesosphere is what distinguishes space from Earth’s
environment, critically dividing literature relevant to the topic
Athena 10 (Upper Atmosphere Wiki, “Mesosphere”, 4-26, http://www.athenaspu.gr/~upperatmosphere/index.php/ Mesosphere)
Being the “gateway” that connects Earth’s environment and space, the
mesosphere is a region of great importance in energy balance processes and a
link in vertical energy transfer, as it is in these layers that great surges of energy meet:
solar radiation and particles contribute to downward energy transfer, whereas gravity
waves, planetary waves and tides contribute to upward energy transfer from the stratosphere.
Thus this region is a boundary layer that determines the temperature and density characteristics
of the surrounding layers. In addition, in a time of increased concern about global climate
change, the fact that the mesosphere might act as a “canary in a coal mine”, being a sensitive
indicator of global temperature change, makes its long-term study an increasingly pressing
matter. Finally, the continuous and ever-increasing presence of mankind in space, and the
importance of the behavior of this region to multiple issues related to aerospace technology,
such as orbital calculations, vehicle re-entry, space debris lifetime etc., make its extensive study
a pressing need.
Our interpretation is most precise and critical to preserve space-specific links --50 miles is the NASA-defined boundary for space
Thirsk 9 (Robert, Canadian Space Agency, et al., “The Space-Flight Environment: the
International Space Station and Beyond”, Canadian Medical Association Journal, 180(12), June,
http://www.ecmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/180/12/ 1216)
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Specific Affs
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Exploration: Includes Tourism/Col
Space Exploration includes tourism, mining and colonization as necessary
components of the overall goals of exploration
Weeks, July 8. (Edyth, Professor of International Space Law at Webster
University).
http://www.bradenton.com/2011/07/08/3333099/webster-university-expert-available.html
Even before NASA retired its space shuttle program, government and privately funded efforts
have already begun to develop a new deep space exploration program. But who owns space?
Private companies are already making plans to profit from it through tourism, mining and
development. And who will craft the laws to fairly govern it? Edythe Weeks is an adjunct
professor of international space law at Webster University in St. Louis and coordinator of
Webster's online international relations program. She is a member of the International Institute
of Space Law and researches international outer space policy and development. She believes
that space exploration will bring significant economic development, creating more jobs in an
exploding industry that will include tourism, mining and colonization. But, she says, it will also
create a whole host of international relations issues. "Colonies, for example, will need to figure
out which language will be dominant, what kind of government will be used and how ideologies
will be formed," says Weeks, who believes the UN's 1967 Outer Space Treaty could even be
changed to consider private-property rights in space. Weeks' research and teaching as well as
Webster University's long-time graduate program in space systems management has landed the
institution in the United Nations directory of institutions offering space law education.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Exploration: Definition is Fluctuating
Space exploration fluctuates according to the goals of existing and possible
programs
Liptak, July 8. (Andrew, journalist for io9.com, 2011)
http://io9.com/5819449/the-era-of-american-space-exploration-is-just-beginning
The space shuttle was a compromise in design and function. Within NASA and political circles, a
debate raged on as to the purpose of space travel and exploration now that the moon had been
reached. With the efforts of the formative missions that made up the Mercury, Gemini and
Apollo programs, exploration of Earth and its immediate neighbor came as a priority, with the
focus of the successive programs working to demonstrate that humans could indeed reach
space, operate successfully in orbit, and successfully land on the Moon and return to the Earth.
Space Exploration refers to different programs depending upon the goals
established by national space agencies
Liptak, July 8. (Andrew, journalist for io9.com, 2011)
http://io9.com/5819449/the-era-of-american-space-exploration-is-just-beginning
The cancellation of the Apollo program led to a major transformation in the focus of space
exploration. For the first time, there was no overall goal; the space race had been defined by a
singular, shared focus between the Soviet Union and the United States. That focus had been
accomplished, and while there was some interest in going to Mars, the budgetary environment
rendered that an impossible dream. America would need to return to space in a way that
captured the public's imagination, and did so cheaply. In a recent conference in Washington DC,
former NASA historian Steve Dick noted that Apollo exhibited three key elements that helped to
make it a successful program, incorporating exploration, discovery and science elements within
the missions. The distinctions, he noted, were important because they're used in the rhetoric
that is used to describe and to justify the space programs. The space shuttle really contained
elements of exploration and discovery, but that science was secondary to the functions of the
shuttle – not that scientific experiments weren't conducted aboard the shuttle, but that by
design, the shuttle could perform a number of functions. Furthermore, the general public never
responds quite as well to science as they do with exploration. Whereas Apollo carried with it
all three key elements, the space shuttle itself served mainly as a tool to achieve selective ends.
Ultimately, he asserted, the space shuttle never could live up to its full capabilities or potential.
Interaction with the public was essential, and was a conscious point when the post-Apollo
mission for NASA was put to paper: without general support from the public, interest in the
space program would evaporate, quickly. NASA had to produce results and engage the public,
and it had to do so cheaply. The American public had become increasingly unhappy with the
price tag of America's space ambitions, despite the importance placed upon its success.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space exploration expands in scope according to technological advances
AND exploration requires action to develop new means of space travel
Liptak, July 8. (Andrew, journalist for io9.com, 2011)
http://io9.com/5819449/the-era-of-american-space-exploration-is-just-beginning
The nature of the Space Shuttle limited America's space ambitions: an expensive program in
and of itself, its existence prevented NASA from capitalizing on the gains achieved by all of the
prior spaceflight programs. With the shuttle, spaceflight meant never venturing outside of a
Low Earth Orbit: the first Hubble mission represented the limits of the spacecraft at 347 miles
above the Earth's surface. By comparison, to reach the moon, astronauts must travel 235,000
miles out and then back again. Plans to shift the focus of US spaceflight from the scientific
missions to more exploration based ones have been proposed in the years prior to the
retirement of the space shuttle, with the intention to shift - rather than simply replace - the
means of space travel from one mission to another. In 2005 testimony from Administrator
Griffin, "the CAIB [Columbia Accident Investigation Board] was equally forthright in calling for a
national consensus in the establishment of a program having broader strategic goals. The Vision
for Space Exploration proposed by the President it that program, and NASA has embraced this
new direction. But, to effect these changes, NASA must engage in a major transformation,
taking the capabilities throughout the agency and restructuring them to achieve these 21st
Century goals." (House Testimony - Find link) The plan, proposed by President Bush, called for
dramatic new changes for the agency: new vehicles, crews and missions that sought, amongst
other goals, to return to the moon, seeking to return to the major Apollo-style missions of the
late 1960s and early 1970s. With the end of the space shuttle program, it's clear that NASA is
facing a period of transition, much as they had during the 1970s, between the Apollo program
and the Space Shuttle program: an entire seven years lapsed before America was able to send
men into space again under their own power, although at that point, a followup program had
been in the works.
Using historical/dated definitions is counterproductive and arbitrarily
overlimiting
http://www.theengineer.co.uk/sectors/aerospace/news/grant-to-ready-plasma-thrusterengine-for-spaceflight/1009280.article
Historical exploration doesn’t pertain well to modern space exploration, as those historical
explorers didn’t have communication, recording, and telerobotic tools that are now widely
available. Early generations of explorers had to “be there” physically to “be there” functionally
and cognitively. Space scientists have a long history of accomplishment with robotic probes,
which swoop through the solar system, down on planets, asteroids, and moons. But the Mars
Exploration Rovers (MERs) set a new standard for robotic command of a complex, obstacleridden environment. Human space explorers in Pasadena could drive for miles across Martian
dunes, around boulders, onto hilltops, into craters, and peer closely at rock formations. Living
on “Mars time”, with a 24.7-hour day, the controllers of Spirit and Opportunity found
themselves deeply immersed not just in the science but in the discovery process.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Exploration: Includes Study of the Earth and Energy
Sources
Space Exploration incorporates the study of Earth and related Earth sciences,
not just outward-looking
Liptak, July 8. (Andrew, journalist for io9.com, 2011)
http://io9.com/5819449/the-era-of-american-space-exploration-is-just-beginning
The report's conclusions were that NASA needed a system that was cheap, reusable and flexible:
it had to hold to a number of diverse missions, shuttling astronauts to and from orbit. As NASA's
budget began to fall from 1966 onwards, the Apollo program was scrapped after Apollo 17 – the
only mission to be crewed by a scientist, geologist Harrison Schmidt. NASA planners shifted the
prepared components of the final three missions and looked to a new mission: science in Low
Earth Orbit. Skylab was born, designed for zero-gravity experimentation. It was the beginning
of a new mission for NASA, one that looked not to the Moon, but back down to Earth.
However, new options were looked at. Concepts for a space plane, predating the Apollo
program, were looked at, focusing on a reusable design that was thought to be cheaper. In 1969,
the Nixon administration pushed forward with the development of the Space Shuttle program:
during Apollo 17, astronauts on the moon (including John Young, who would pilot the first
shuttle mission), learned that funding had been approved.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Exploration: includes R and D for new Transportation
Space exploration includes the research and development of new
transportation mechanisms
The Engineer, July 6 2011.
http://www.theengineer.co.uk/sectors/aerospace/news/grant-to-ready-plasma-thrusterengine-for-spaceflight/1009280.article
Engineers at the Australian National University (ANU) have won a A$3.1m (£2.063m) grant from
the Australian federal government to make a plasma thruster engine ready for spaceflight. If
successful, the engine could be used in satellites and deep-space missions as soon as 2013.
Project leader Prof Rod Boswell, from the Plasma Research Laboratory, said the engine will be
based on his colleague Prof Christine Charles’ Helicon Double Layer Thruster (HDLT)
design. ’Plasma thruster engines are set to be the future of all space exploration and satellite
activities. They are much less powerful than conventional chemical rocket engines, but in
principle are more efficient for long periods of time, making them ideal for deep-space
missions,’ said Boswell. The grant won by Boswell and his colleagues in the Plasma Research
Laboratory will also help build a space simulation facility at ANU. Based at Mt Stromlo
Observatory in Canberra, the space simulation facility will enable the HDLT to be tested in
space-like conditions. The facility will also be made available to other scientists, astronomers
and industry bodies seeking to develop space equipment. The grant to ANU forms part of a
$6.1m investment in space research and education announced last month by Australian
innovation minister Kim Carr.
Includes energy research and investment
Washington Post, July 4. (Christian Torres, staff writer, 2011).
http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/space-station-research-ramps-up-asshuttles-return-to-earth/2011/06/28/gHQA6hG6xH_story.html
The United States shall develop and use space nuclear power systems where
such systems safely enable or significantly enhance space exploration or
operational capabilities. Approval by the President or his designee shall be required to
launch and use United States Government spacecraft utilizing nuclear power systems
either with a potential for criticality or above a minimum threshold of radioactivity, in
accordance with the existing interagency review process . To inform this decision, the
Secretary of Energy shall conduct a nuclear safety analysis for evaluation by an ad hoc
Interagency Nuclear Safety Review Panel that will evaluate the risks associated with
launch and in-space operations
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Space Exploration: Includes Study of Human Life
Space exploration includes the study of human life potential in space
Washington Post, July 4. (Christian Torres, staff writer, 2011).
http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/space-station-research-ramps-up-asshuttles-return-to-earth/2011/06/28/gHQA6hG6xH_story.html
After Atlantis returns to Earth this month, NASA’s space shuttles will no longer take Americans
into space, but that doesn’t mean the end of an American presence in orbit. The international
space station, expected to operate through 2020, will house at least one American astronaut at
all times. “We’re certainly going to continue using the station to advance our mission of space
exploration,” said Mark Uhran, NASA’s assistant associate administrator for the space station
program. While the station — a joint venture of the United States, Russia, Europe, Japan and
Canada — is not yet complete 13 years after its first components were launched into orbit,
assembly of the U.S. portion was finished during the final few shuttle missions. That portion
includes facilities for NASA’s continued research on human physiology and space technology.
It also includes a new national laboratory that will be overseen by a nonprofit entity to be
selected by the end of September. The lab will house projects by companies, universities and
government agencies. The National Institutes of Health, for example, will conduct research on
immune cell function, the Defense Department will study solar cells for satellites and biotech
company Astrogenetix will investigate vaccines. Many groups have already been conducting
research on the station, but, Uhran says, “all of this is ramping up now that assembly is coming
to a close.” In that respect, the end of the shuttle program marks a welcome milestone for the
station’s scientific goals.
Space exploration can be for the purpose of studying Earth and the general
application to Earth sciences like geography or Asteroid defense
Socyberty 9/14/08 The Benefits of Space Exploration
http://socyberty.com/future/the-benefits-of-space-exploration/
The last argument is what I believe is the most important in terms of safety and survival, is
the use of space exploration to combat the danger of foreign objects that can collide
with the earth. When someone studies the geographical history of the planet, it is not
too long before they encounter the formations and scientific evidence that throughout
its evolution, the earth has been hit by asteroids that were the cause of global
destruction and mass change, the likes of which no one could ever imagine . There are
some that believe that the end of the Dinosaurs were attributed to a large object, such as an
asteroid, which sailed into the direction of the earth’s orbit, crashed into it, and thus caused
great natural disasters such as earthquakes, tsunamis, continental drifts, volcanic eruptions, and
other anomalies that destroyed most life and its natural habitats throughout the world. In the
Institute of Astronomy at the University of Hawaii, they explain asteroids as “objects,
collectively known as Near Earth Objects or NEOs, still pose a danger to Earth today.
WNDI 2011
Topicality
Depending on the size of the impacting object, such a collision can cause massive
damage on local to global scales. There is no doubt that sometime in the future Earth
will suffer another cosmic impact; the only question is “when?” There is strong scientific
evidence that cosmic collisions have played a major role in the mass extinctions
documented in Earth’s fossil record.” (Institute for Astronomy 2005) The information
continues on to say that “search programs have discovered hundreds of thousands of
main-belt asteroids, and have identified thousands of NEOs. They have made great
progress toward meeting the Congressional mandate and have cataloged most, but not
all, of the 1-km and larger NEOs — the ones that are most likely to produce a global
catastrophe, such as a mass extinction should they collide with Earth.” (Institute for
Astronomy 2005) It doesn’t take much more than a good size object the size of an SUV to form a
large rift in the earth’s crust to make earthquakes and tidal waves, comparable to the tsunami
that killed thousands in Thailand three years ago. Space exploration, with the help of
satellite technology and the further construction of better space craft, can not only
plot ones that may strike the earth, but they can get at those very objects and prevent
them from colliding with the planet. One missed object unseen, can devastate the
entire world and cause mass causalities beyond any man-made weapon could ever hope
to cause.
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Preliminary research qualifies as exploration
Hall-ranking member of the House Science and Technology Committee-7/14/09
http://thehill.com/special-reports/technology-july-2009/50201-numerous-benefits-of-spaceexploration
Numerous benefits of space exploration
Forty years ago the world watched in wonder as American astronauts blazed through Earth’s
atmosphere into outer space and landed on the moon, the first time in history that humans set
foot on another celestial body. But today, with the economy floundering and the national debt
soaring into the stratosphere, some may suggest that we simply cannot afford to sustain human
space exploration. I would argue just the opposite. Anyone who follows NASA knows that
President Obama recently launched an independent review of planned U.S. human spaceflight
activities. The blue ribbon panel, headed by Norman Augustine, retired chairman and chief
executive officer of Lockheed Martin, and my friend, is expected to release its findings in August.
I am confident that Norm will not sugarcoat the panel’s findings, and I am also optimistic that
the panel will promote an ambitious goal for manned space exploration. America’s space and
technological preeminence in the world hangs in the balance. Throughout its 40-year history,
our space program has set goals that required innovation and technology yet to be developed,
and the results have been astonishing. Miniaturized integrated circuits, satellite technology, GPS
navigation systems, bone-density measurements, miniaturized heart pumps and other
technologies derived from NASA research and development have saved and improved our lives.
New spin-offs include water filtration systems that turn wastewater into drinkable water,
wireless light switches, remediation solutions for sites contaminated by chemicals, the
development of Liquidmetal and sensors on reconnaissance robots used in Afghanistan and Iraq
to deal with improvised explosive devices. The list goes on and on. The National Research
Council recently released a report advocating that NASA align its civil space program with
national needs. While I understand the temptation to focus on finding solutions to present
problems, we need to remember that much of the R&D conducted by NASA has resulted in
unintended yet beneficial breakthroughs. Space exploration drives innovation by reaching into
the unknown and overcoming complex problems. This sort of problem-solving inherently
pushes the limits of technology. Space exploration fundamentally necessitates basic research.
If we try to task NASA with too narrow a mission for R&D, we lose the possibility of new
discoveries and breakthroughs to adapt technologies in new and creative ways that could have
unanticipated applications. Rather than micromanage the type of research we want from our
space program, I would prefer a clear goal for U.S. space exploration. NASA must have a
challenging, inspirational goal that is ambitious and sufficiently funded. President Bush gave
NASA the direction it needed with his Vision for Space Exploration, which included a plan to
complete the International Space Station (ISS), retire the Space Shuttle, and develop a new
launch system capable of traveling outside low Earth orbit, with a goal of returning to the moon
by 2020 as a stepping stone to more difficult destinations such as Mars. This was a goal that
Congress endorsed in the NASA Authorization Act of both 2005 and 2008, which were
subsequently signed into law. Our space program has accomplished many great feats in the last
half-century and it is only prudent to implement and fund a vision that builds on that progress.
America and our global partners have nearly completed the ISS, which is possibly the most
elaborate engineering endeavor of all time. Unfortunately, with an impending five-year gap in
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U.S. spaceflight capability following retirement of the Space Shuttle, we will have to rely on
Russia and our international partners to ferry crew and cargo to and from the ISS. This is a
setback for our space program but one that can be overcome with a renewed commitment to
space exploration. I strongly believe that we must close the gap in U.S. access to space and it is
my hope that the Augustine panel comes to a similar conclusion. NASA has made great progress
in developing the Orion vehicle and the Ares launch systems. Constellation is already in the
development phase, so to abandon this plan now would be a massive waste of time, money and
resources. The one-half of one percent of the national budget devoted to NASA may be the best
investment we make, providing for long-term, high-dividend research, and technology
breakthroughs. Economic growth is driven by technological innovation, and space exploration
fuels this innovation.
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Exploration includes Satellites
New satellites and surveillance qualify (also beyond the mesosphere)
Socyberty 9/14/08 (The Benefits of Space Exploration)
http://socyberty.com/future/the-benefits-of-space-exploration/
The fourth argument I would like to refer to are those who prescribe to the uselessness of
space exploration is its actual benefits towards world hunger. Today, we are constantly
bombarded with pictures and stories of food shortages and starvation from third world
countries that are often plagued by natural disasters and poor farming techniques. This is one of
the chief elements that are often brought up when there is a discussion about the value of space
exploration. In Dr. Ernst Stuhlinger’s paper on Space Exploration: Why Explore Space?, he
illustrates an example of its benefit by saying “large areas of land could be utilized far
well if efficient methods of watershed control, fertilizer use, weather forecasting,
fertility assessment, plantation programming, field selection, planting habits, timing of
cultivation, crop survey and harvest planning were applied. The best tool for the
improvement of all these functions, undoubtedly, is the artificial earth satellite. Circling
the globe at a high altitude, it can screen wide areas of land within a short time; it can
observe and measure a large variety of factors indicating the status and conditions of
crops, soil, droughts, rainfall, snow cover, etc., and it can radio this information to
ground stations for appropriate use.”( Stuhlinger 1996) In this report, satellite technology
from space can not only forcast current weather patterns, but it can also be used to monitor
crops and predict conditions for later farming plans.
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Mars is Space Exploration
Space Exploration includes missions to Mars
Parabolic Arc 4/15/10 http://www.parabolicarc.com/2010/04/15/space-exploration-coalitionobamas-space-goals-distant-unclear/ COALITION FOR SPACE EXPLORATION PRESS RELEASE
The Coalition for Space Exploration (Coalition) recognizes today’s Space Conference in Florida as an important step in the continuing discussion on the
future of America’s global leadership in space exploration. The Coalition believes human space exploration is a national imperative that calls for a
To
successfully forge the industry and international partnerships necessary for future space
exploration missions, America must have robust, sustained support from its elected
officials and the public. This cannot be achieved, when goals are distant and unclear . The
focused strategy with a more aggressive timetable and milestones to drive the development of capabilities, in support of its missions.
President’s announcement, today, that NASA will undertake the development of a heavy-lift vehicle for deep space missions to specific destinations,
including asteroids and Mars, provides some clarity to the future direction of space exploration, planned by the Administration. We commend the
President’s efforts to help mitigate some of the job losses associated with the retirement of the Space Shuttle program and restructuring of
Constellation. This highly skilled workforce is essential to the sustainment of our nation’s preeminence in space, economic, and national security and
While
the steps outlined by President Obama are encouraging, many key issues and concerns
remain with regard to the transition from the current programs to the proposed new
exploration agenda and the impact that it will have on our nation’s space industrial base
and global leadership. Delaying a decision until 2015 on the design of a heavy-lift
vehicle, the establishment of its first human exploration mission for no earlier than
2025, as a precursor to a Mars expedition in 2030, threatens to sacrifice a generation of
experience and expertise in our nation’s human space flight workforce. Continuing
development of a variant of the Orion spacecraft is good news, in that it will reduce
dependence on Russian spacecraft for International Space Station (ISS) crew escape and
take advantage of existing assets and investments, but it by no means fully addresses
the issue of independent, assured American access to space. There remain questions as
to whether the proposal to rely solely on commercial providers to send American
astronauts to the ISS is premature and threatens to extend indefinitely our reliance on
other nations. In the final analysis, the U.S. human spaceflight program is a national
imperative, not only a commercial interest.
global competitiveness. The erosion of this skill base would seriously affect the nation’s industrial base and national security strategies.