Trend Analysis: Adventure Tourism in New Zealand
Nicole H. Pageot
School of Hospitality & Tourism Management
University of Guelph
ABSTRACT
This report provides an overview of adventure tourism and its role in the New Zealand tourism
market. It outlines the components of adventure tourism, the typologies of tourists involved and
the types of activities undertaken. The New Zealand tourism market is assessed, as well as
specific adventure tourism activities, and nature-based tourism activities. Impacts that adventure
tourism has created are discussed, with a large focus on safety and risk. The involvement and
management of tourism operators is examined as an important component of these impacts and
the trend’s future. Future growth of this sector relies on the ability to create effective policies
and marketing actions to control how adventure tourism is viewed and will end the report.
Keywords: adventure tourism, tourism risk, tourism safety, New Zealand
INTRODUCTION
As the global marketplace is changing it is important to study and monitor tourism trends.
An ability to be proactive in determining supply and demand as well as measuring anticipated
impacts can ensure that the tourism industry will be sustainable for the future. Adventure tourism
is an increasingly popular travel trend in regions of the world. Though tourism has always had a
basis in experiencing travel in outdoor areas and confronting one’s comfort zone, adventure
tourism is a trend that is slightly different. This report will describe adventure tourism, and how
it differs from recreational tourism and adventure pursuits. The motivations and goals of
adventure tourists will be discussed, as well as their required skills and competence levels to
participate in activities. The report will focus on the market in New Zealand, where the
adventure tourism industry is largely developed in comparison to other adventure tourism
regions. Past trends and travel activity will be examined, as well as impacts that activity has had
on New Zealand and its tourism market. A future outlook on the adventure tourism industry and
impacts will also be discussed.
DESCRIPTION OF ADVENTURE TOURISM
Adventure tourism is a niche market that has recently gained popularity in the tourism
industry. Though the term does not have a universally agreed-upon definition, most citations
agree upon a few key elements. Activities take place in an outdoor environment, focus on
recreation and the location of sites varies depending on the activity but is usually set in a remote,
exotic or natural setting (Scott & Mowen, 2007, p. 146, Sung, 2004, p. 345). Tourists require
significant physical and mental effort, as challenges push outside of one’s comfort zone as seen
in the variety of physically demanding activities. An interaction or engagement with nature in a
physically or mentally challenging manner is an important aspect of adventure tourism because
for many adventure tourists the experience is not a competition against one’s peers, but between
oneself and the physical environment and of finding a way to master its challenges (Weber,
2001, p. 368).
Though there are many forms of recreational tourism, the aspect that sets adventure
tourism apart from other leisure experiences is the “positive valuation of risk and danger, in
effect the potential to lose something of value” (Kane & Tucker, 2004, p. 220). Adventure
tourists are driven by confidence, excitement, thrill, exhilaration, risk, uncertainty and
accomplishment and seek activities that are new, unknown, fun, sociable, and can act as a way to
manage stress (Cater, 2006; Weber, 2001). Perceived risk and danger offer a way to satisfy these
needs, as tourists confront challenges. Adventure tourism was described as “a spectrum of
experiences from routine to extreme” by participants in Kane and Tucker’s study (2004, p. 226).
This allows the market to capture a variety of consumers with a variety of skills, ambitions and
tolerance for risk. Though risk is a major element of adventure tourism, the perception of risk
differs largely between consumers based on one’s personality, demographics and other
behavioural traits.
In a 2005 study, Tran and Ralston found that there exists a strong correlation between
adventure tourists and an unconscious motivation of achievement in their travel preferences. In
order to reach optimal levels of achievement, adventure tourists seek to match their skills and
competencies with the situational risk (Weber, 2001, p. 362), as shown by Martin and Priest’s
Adventure Experience Paradigm (1986). Consumers wish to reach their peak adventure level to
be fully satisfied, understanding that too much risk or too little competence can lead to disaster.
On the other hand, too little risk or too much competence may leave the consumer uninterested.
Tourists are motivated to determine one’s own strengths and abilities through their travel
experiences. Adventure tourists consistently push their limits with each travel experience to test
one’s strengths. Kane and Tucker’s 2005 study concluded that adventure tourism revolves
around three themes: play, freedom and reality. Adventure tourists want to ‘play’ in that they
desire a game that still has rules and strategy, while having the ‘freedom’ to participate and
control the situation and their involvement, in a ‘real’ environment. Williams and Soutar (2009)
found that adventure tourists tend to be young, affluent, and active thrill-seekers who have
become demanding, discerning consumers as a result of travel experiences. Tourists have used
their travel experiences to determine their capacities and to push these limits in future
endeavours.
Adventure tourism is generally broken into two subcategories: hard- and soft-adventure
tourism. Hard-adventure tourism is physically-challenging, involving a potential for high
elements of risk to obtain extreme experiences and is often the primary motivation of a trip
(Scott & Mowen, 2007, p. 146). Soft-adventure tourism is rewarding for the spirit and mind,
without excessive physical demands, involves low to moderate levels of risk and is often a
secondary motivation for travel (Scott & Mowen, 2007, p. 146). Many recreational activities can
fit into adventure tourism, for example: mountaineering, hiking, trekking, bungee jumping,
mountain biking, white water rafting, ziplining, rock climbing, kayaking, canoeing, zorbing,
hang gliding, paragliding, skydiving, scuba diving, caving, wind surfing, camping and safaris,
illustrative of the breadth of this niche.
ADVENTURE TOURISM IN NEW ZEALAND
New Zealand Tourism Market
In 1999, the New Zealand tourism industry attracted over 1.5 million international
visitors, with 766,897 visitors travelling for holiday/vacation purposes (Statistics New Zealand,
2004, p. 8). Total tourism expenditure reached over $12.3 billion, with $5.0 billion from
international visitors (Statistics New Zealand, 2004, p. 4). The industry employed 146,000
people, with 88,000 directly involved in tourism activities, amounting to 9.1% of total
employment in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2004, p. 4). Ten years later, the New
Zealand tourism industry attracted over 2.4 million visitors, with 1.1 million travelling for
holiday/vacation purposes (Statistics New Zealand, 2009, p. 10). Total tourism expenditure was
$21.7 billion, with $9.3 billion from international visitors (Statistics New Zealand, 2009, p. 7).
The tourism industry provided over 184,000 jobs, with 94,000 directly involved in tourism
activities, making up 9.6% of the workforce in New Zealand (Statistics New Zealand, 2009, p.
9). Tourism expenditure was over $12.3 billion in 1999, and rose to over $21.7 billion in 2009
(Statistics New Zealand, 2009, p. 4). In 1999, nearly $5.0 billion was attributed to international
tourists and $7.4 was due to domestic tourists, while in 2009 the expenditures were $9.3 billion
and $12.4 billion, respectively (Statistics New Zealand, 2009, p. 7).
Adventure Tourism Market
Queenstown is the second largest city in New Zealand’s South Island, and is promoted as
the ‘Adventure Capital of the World’ (Cater, 2006, p. 319). While it is home to many adventure
tourism activities, the entire country provides a large market as well, based on its diverse natural
landscape. In 2003, New Zealand had over 400 adventure tourism operators which were used by
11% of visitors to the country, an example of an industry that has adapted to serve the needs of
the adventure tourism market (Williams & Soutar, 2009, p. 415).
A study by Bentley, Page and Walker (2004, p. 282) revealed that in 2003, New Zealand
adventure tourism operators consisted of 46% land-based activities, 35% water-based activities,
and 19% air-based activities. Of these activities, 75% took less than ten hours to complete
(including transportation to and from the site), and 40% took less than four hours (Bentley et al,
2004, p. 282). This demonstrates the nature of an industry that has accommodated its tourism
product to meet consumers’ time constraints. Of the 96 adventure tourism operators surveyed,
who estimated more than 643,000 customers participating in adventure tourism, 51% were male
and only 14% were under the age of 16. It is likely that participants under the age of 16 are either
unable to meet the physical requirements for adventure tourism activities, unable to pay for
travel on their own or require parental consent for participation.
A 2004 to 2008 New Zealand nature-based tourism report provides segmented data for
the market, and reveals a great amount of information. The nature segment included most forms
of adventure tourism discussed in the above section, as well as some sports, recreation, scenic
drives, and other light sightseeing. As a result, the data is not an exclusive representation of the
adventure tourism market in New Zealand, but is helpful in analysis of recreational nature
activities. In 2008, there were 2.0 million tourists involved in 11.1 million nature-based trips
(The Ministry of Tourism, 2009a). The amount of tourists for nature-based travel increased at a
stable rate since 2004 with: 10.3 million in 2004, 10.8 million in 2005, 10.9 million in 2006, and
11.2 million in 2007 (The Ministry of Tourism, 2009a). In 2008, 39% of tourists travelled fullyindependently, 39% travelled semi-independently, 11% travelled as a packaged holiday and 10%
as a tour group (The Ministry of Tourism, 2009a). The propensity to participate in nature-based
activities was 98% for tour groups, 89% for package travellers, 73% for semi-independents and
60% for fully independents (The Ministry of Tourism, 2009a). The majority of tourists to New
Zealand for nature-based travel were from Australia (33%), followed by the United Kingdom
(14%), the United States (10%), China (6%), Japan (5%), and other countries with the remaining
32% (The Ministry of Tourism, 2009a). Age groups who participated in nature-based tourism
were relatively similar across groupings, with ages 25-34 at 22%, 55-64 at 19%, 45-54 at 18%,
and 35-44 at 16% for international visitors (The Ministry of Tourism, 2009a). The wide variety
of activities that can be included in nature-based tourism can appeal to a range of age groups.
However, manipulation of the data in order to apply it to adventure tourism purposes would
likely have an effect on the age distribution and the range of groups participating because of the
types of activities included in nature-based tourism.
A major element that has allowed for adventure tourism to expand has been the
commercialization and commoditisation of the adventure experience. By changing fear into thrill
and making it safe, consumers have been more willing and able to participate in these activities
(Cater, 2004, p. 322). A participant in Kane & Tucker’s study stated that “somehow it seems
safer to do adventure tourism than it does to do adventure” (Kane & Tucker, 2004, p. 227).
Operators have been able to make package deals that appeal to institutionalized tourists, by
planning the logistics of the trip and simply having the tourist participate.
IMPACTS TO DATE
The degree of risk involved with adventure tourism has led to deaths of participants over
the past years. In 1999, two major adventure tourism catastrophes occurred. In Austria, four
British tourists drowned while white water rafting, and in Switzerland 21 people were killed
while canyoning (Cater, 2004, p. 317). Since rafting operations opened up in Queenstown in
1974, there has been approximately one fatality per year, overwhelmingly attributed to human
error (Cater, 2004, p. 320). Legal implications led to a review of rafting standards by the
Maritime Safety Authority, which largely blamed the rafting companies (Cater, 2004, p. 320).
These and other adventure tourism disasters are often attributed to the levels of risk involved in
participation, but Cater (2004) places significance on the willingness of consumers to transfer
responsibility for risk management to the activity provider.
From the time period 1982 to 1996 there were 1,027 overseas visitor hospitalizations in
New Zealand which occurred during an adventure tourism activity, which represented 17% of all
overseas visitor hospitalizations (Bentley et al, 2004, p. 280). As well, 22% of all fatalities for
the period were due to adventure tourism activities, the majority of which were by individuals
participating in unguided, independent activities (Bentley et al, 2004, p. 280). Within the
commercial adventure tourism operating sector the majority of injuries occurred while horse
riding or cycling and the most severe injuries were a result of aviation and water-based activities
(Bentley et al, 2004, p. 280).
Though adventure tourists seek risk, Weber (2001, p. 362) found in multiple studies that
they do not fully abandon safety, as shown by the careful selection of travel operators, combined
with the examination of environmental conditions and the meticulous preparation of equipment.
However, commercialization has altered the degree of risk in adventure tourism. As adventure
tourism becomes more popular, consumers begin to put their confidence and trust into operators.
Tourist operators must be aware that any real risks (actual possibility of death or serious
injury) can be detrimental to their success. After five deaths during 18 months near the mid
1990s, the Queenstown tourism market was dramatically affected (Cater, 2004, p. 320). The
rafting market fell from about 500 participants per day to less than 50, and tourist expenditure
dropped from NZ $5 million to NZ $2 million (Cater, 2004, p. 320). The most frequently cited
risk factors by adventure tourism operators in Bentley et al’s study included: environmental
conditions, task and equipment issues, work organization and management problems, and client
behaviour, revealing that operators must gain control over safety to remove all elements of real
risk.
ANTICIPATED FUTURE EVOLUTION AND IMPACTS
Growth
Adventure tourism is a fast growing sector of outdoor tourism within a number of
countries, notably Canada, experiencing growth as high as 15% annually (Williams and Soutar
2009, p. 413). Consumers want to face unusual situations and successfully complete these tasks,
while accepting more levels of risk in leisure activities (Cater, 2006, p. 318, 321). If operators
can continue to provide unique experiences that include these components, the adventure tourism
market should be sustainable in its growth.
However, the adventure tourism industry does have barriers to growth, primarily centred
on safety. Regulations and policies will be a major factor in the continued development of a safe
and reputable industry in New Zealand.
Policy
Cater believes that the primary problem with accidents and fatalities in the adventure
tourism industry in New Zealand is the lack of any “coherent central framework for [accident]
reporting and prevention” (Cater, 2004, p. 320). The Royal Geographic Society prepared a code
of conduct for adventure tourism operators to increase transparency, which should allow for
participants to make more informed decisions about their tourism operator choices (Cater, 2004,
p. 324). The Tourism Industry Association New Zealand (TIANZ) website has a section on risk
and safety management. It provides a checklist and list of principles for safe practices in the
commercial adventure and outdoor recreation sectors, however, the lists are simply guidelines for
operators. The government is in the process of making these guidelines compulsory for operators
in order to ensure safety in the adventure tourism sector, though there are limitations and
exclusions (TIANZ, 2010, p. 12). The checklist reviews issues of: reliable and safe
communication, standard operating procedures, training and checking, visitor briefings, working
safety reporting systems, and culture and leadership (TIANZ, 2010). The principles work
towards achieving: a positive safety culture, a relevant safety management system, initial and
ongoing external assessments by a third party, competent staff, clear communication with clients,
well maintained equipment, and an exchange of safety information (TIANZ, 2010).
Bentley et al’s study of New Zealand adventure tourism operators revealed that the
primary barrier to the control of safety in adventure tourism activities was the cost of compliance
with safety measures (Bentley et al, 2004, p. 284). Other significant barriers included the natural
environment and weather conditions, staff competence and experience, staff recruitment and
selection, and time constraints (Bentley et al, 2004, p. 284). In order to control and manage these
barriers, regulations and policies by the government or the industry must be initiated. The study
asked operators to identify methods that they have used to manage risks, some of which
included: better tracks/routes, ensuring proper footwear, closer supervision, and ensuring clients
understand and pay attention to briefings (Bentley et al, 2004, p.284). Until these types of
measures are regulated throughout the industry, consumers will not be able to distinguish or trust
which operators are investing into safety measures.
Nevertheless, there has been some evidence of a movement towards a safer adventure
tourism market. As more commercial tourism operators begin business, the Adventure
Experience Paradigm is being challenged. Commercial operators allow for an alteration of risk
and the need for consumer competency through standardisation of tourism products (Cater, 2006,
p. 319). Consumers are provided with more controlled risk and a disproportionate amount of
competency and skill. Operators will need to be able to manage consumers in a way that ensures
their safety is not compromised.
Marketing
The New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2015 is a government initiative that is aiming to
protect and improve the country’s natural, cultural and social environments through
benchmarking for the tourism industry (The Ministry of Tourism, 2009b). The Qualmark
initiative is a quality accreditation program that sets standards throughout the industry in order to
allow consumers to better choose safe and reputable companies while traveling. In 2008,
Qualmark Green and Qualmark Enviro were also introduced for environmentally friendly and
sustainably measures, which are “the world’s first integrated environmental performance and
tourism quality assurance program” (The Ministry of Tourism, 2009b).
New Zealand’s current marketing strategy ‘100% Pure’ is a reflection of the direction the
country wants to take in developing its tourism industry by setting goals to protect its
environment, which is the key attraction of the destination. As adventure tourism heavily relies
on the environment and its resources, ensuring the health and sustainability of it now before the
market expands too much will be an important measure for the success of the industry.
Tourism New Zealand recently began another campaign called ‘Go All the Way’ which
is targeted to youth travellers and backpackers from Europe (Tourism New Zealand, 2010).
These travellers typically take a gap year after secondary school and fit in well with the
adventure tourism market. The period from September 2009 to June 2010 revealed an increase of
4% of visitors aged 15 to 24 years compared to the same period of the previous year (Tourism
New Zealand, 2010).
CONCLUSION
Adventure tourism has the potential to evolve into a more accessible market through the
regulation of activities and operators. The industry is currently suffering by safety measures and
risks losing its credibility as a consequence. Though risk is a major factor of the adventure
tourism industry, it must be managed in a way to ensure that participants are able to use their
skills and competencies effectively. If the industry becomes too commercialized and loses its
perceived risks, consumers may not feel the experiences are authentic and will not want to
participate. New Zealand is a large market for adventure tourism, and if the adventure tourism
industry can be developed in a sustainable and secure manner, it will ensure its success as an
adventure tourism leader.
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