Markus Geissler, PhD
Professor, Computer Information Science
Cosumnes River College
Sacramento, California, USA
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Overview

Software agents defined

Cultural considerations for agent design
 Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
 Hall’s High- and Low-Context Cultures

Agent environments

Agent roles
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Cultural Factors in Agent Design
 Due
to their cultural
differences agent designers
are likely to take different
approaches to creating agent
attributes, actions, and
interactions within the agent’s
environment.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Definitions of an Agent

Common usage
 An agent is a “person who acts on behalf of
another, for example, managing business,
financial or contractual matters, or provides
a service.”

Computer science-related
 An agent is “an entity that performs a
specific activity in an environment of which it
is aware and that can respond to changes.”
○ (Sterling & Taveter, 2009)
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Cultural Differences Can Lead to
Security Problems
It is important to understand the mindset
of your collaborators and/or
counterparts.
 Communication can help alleviate
cultural differences and improve
information systems design.

Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Quick Review:
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions
Power Distance (PDI)
 Individualism/Collectivism (IDV)
 Masculinity/Femininity (MAS)
 Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)
 Long-Term Orientation (LTO)

 Source: http://www.geert-hofstede.com

Apply to software agent design
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Power Distance (PDI)

What is the agent’s role?
 What are the agent’s functions?

High-PDI: Servant
 Dependent entity
 Does only what it is told to do by the master

Low-PDI: Service provider
 Independent entity
 Shared vs. assigned power
 Is the agent a threat to me?
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Individualism/Collectivism (IDV)

High-IDV
 I can do it myself!
 Loose group = less collective expertise?
 Are high-IDV cultures more or less likely to
use agents?

Low-IDV
 How does the agent interact with my
group(s)?
 Can my in-group(s) do the job of the agent?
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Masculinity/Femininity (MAS)

High-MAS
 The agent will do precisely as I tell it to, or
else.

Low-MAS
 Agents should be tools of support and
caring.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI)

High-UAI
 Will the agent to the right thing all the time?
 What limitations or parameters need to be
set?

Low-UAI
 Can agents with fewer rules be more
flexible?
○ And therefore more effective?
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Long-Term Orientation (LTO)

High-LTO
 Will this agent make me do my job better?

Low-LTO (short-term orientation)
 Could this agent get me into trouble?
 Could using this agent offend someone and
make me look bad?
○ Colleagues vs. family
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
High-Context vs. Low-Context

Members of high-context cultures share
substantial common knowledge.
 Effective communication is assumed even if
less explicit.

In low-context cultures “more knowledge
is codified, public, external, and
accessible.”
○ http://www.culture-at-work.com (Beer, 2003;
Hall, 1976)
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Environment

How does an agent interact with other
concrete agents and objects in its
environment?
 Does it require more or less resources of its
environment or other agents?

To what degree does the environment
facilitate coordination and
communication between agents?
 Example: CSMA/CD vs. CSMA/CA
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Cultural Perceptions of
Environment

Real vs. virtual
 In some real environments 99.999% uptime
is not realistic.
 Virtual environments may be assumed to be
more reliable.

On time vs. in time
 Some cultures expect timeliness by the
clock while others consider it timely if the
needs of others are appropriately met.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Which Cultural Roles do Agents
Play?
Members of high-PDI cultures may design
agents that exert what some may consider
excessive control over other agents or their
environment
 Service orientation vs. control relationships
 Example: Some waiters and waitresses in
the U.S. can be overbearing

 Some try to upsell to expensive beverages
 The goal is to have lunch and a conversation,
not to be interrupted all the time.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Types

Interaction pathways between agent
types
 Peer vs. control relationships

Members of high-PDI cultures may
subordinate agent types differently than
members of low-PDI cultures.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Valuation of Resources

In some cultures materials and goods
have varying degrees of importance.
 Some try to conserve resources no matter
what.
○ High-LTO
 Others are more liberal with the use of
resources, arguing that the resources exist
to be used.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Problem Solving

Cultures approach and address problems
differently.
 Members of high-IDV cultures try to solve
problems themselves.
 Members of low-LTO cultures try to cover them
up.

Sometimes a problem in one culture is not
considered a problem in another.
 The network is not running as efficiently as
possible. But it is running. What’s the problem?
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Sensors and Actuators

Different perceptions by various cultures
 How frequently, how precisely, and to what
extremes should an agent analyze its
environment?

Concept of “stateless” can be difficult to
grasp for low-LTO cultures
 Something that is stateless has no tradition.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Design Considerations

Attributes
 More or less attributes?
 More or less clearly defined?
○ At what cost?

Actions → Events to other agents
 More or less complex?
○ At what cost?

Behavioral constructs (environment)
 More or less complex?
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Attribute Design - 1

Designers from low-context cultures will
probably include more specific and
detailed, and therefore more, attributes.
 Example: Sensors that can distinguish
between 100 rather than 10 different states

Benefits
 More precise agent functionality

Disadvantages
 More costly initial design and ongoing
operation
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Attribute Design - 2
Designers from high-IDV cultures are
more likely to create more functional and
more independent agents.
 Benefits

 Greater agent autonomy, along with lower
communication requirements

Disadvantages
 Reduced agent portability between various
environments
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Action Design – 1
Designers from high-UAI cultures are
more likely to design agents that are
more failure-resistant.
 Benefits

 Lower incidence of malfunction

Disadvantages
 Agent design takes longer and is more
involved.
 Agent communications with the environment
are more intensive.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Action Design – 2
Designers from low-context cultures are
more likely to design agents that
communicate large amounts of
information.
 Benefits

 More detailed recognition and
communication of an agent’s attributes,
environment, and changes therein

Disadvantages
 Greater demands on the environment
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Behavioral Construct Design
Designers from low-MAS cultures are
more likely to design agents that
communicate more comprehensively
with other objects in their environment.
 Benefits

 More reliable communication with more
feedback

Disadvantages
 Greater connectivity requirements
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Agent Design Considerations for
Certain Countries

Country
Japan
Portugal
South Korea
Slovakia *
United States
PDI IDV MAS
54 46 95
63 27 31
60 18 39
104 52 110
40 91 62
UAI LTO
92 80
104 N/A
85 75
51 38
46 29
* Estimated values
 Source: http://www.geert-hofstede.com
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Bibliography

Beer, J. (2003). Communicating Across
Cultures: High and Low Context.
Retrieved February 22, 2010 from
http://www.culture-atwork.com/highlow.html .

Hall, E.T. (1976). Beyond Culture, New
York: Doubleday.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Bibliography (continued)

Hofstede, G. (2009). Geert Hofstede™
Cultural Dimensions. Retrieved February 22,
2010 from http://www.geert-hofstede.com/ .

Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences:
comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and
organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage.

Hofstede, G. (1997). Cultures and
Organizations: Software of the mind. New
York: McGraw Hill.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Bibliography (continued)

Sterling, L. & Taveter, K. (2009). The Art
of Agent-Oriented Modeling. Cambridge,
MA: The MIT Press.

Whitman, M.E. & Mattord, H.J. (2009).
Principles of Information Security (3rd
ed.). Boston, MA: Course Technology.
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD
Did you pay attention?



What are the differences between highand low-context cultures?
What are three major agent design
considerations?
At_______, Ac_______, B_____ C____
Approaches to Software Agent Design in Various
Cultural Environments - Markus Geissler, PhD