Demokratisering
Kristian Stokke
kristian.stokke@sgeo.uio.no
Institutt for sosiologi og samfunnsgeografi
Hva er liberalt demokrati?
Den tredje demokratiseringsbølgen
31 %
74 %
Demokratiseringsbølger
 Første bølge (ca. 1800 - 1930)
– ”The Great Transformation” (Karl Polyani) fører til utvikling av
liberalt demokrati ifm. Kapitalistisk utvikling, men også
autoritære fascistiske og kommunistiske regimer og
kolonisering i Asia og Afrika
 Andre bølge (ca. 1945 - 1970)
– Regimeendringer i etterkant av økonomiske kriser, krig og
politiske endringer i sentrum av verdenssystemet
– Demokratisering av aksemaktene etter 2. Verdenskrig
– Avkolonisering i Asia og Afrika
 Tredje bølge (1974 - idag)
– Demokratisering etter den kalde krigen og under globalisering
– Sør-Europa, Latin-Amerika, Øst-Europa, Afrika
Earlier theories of democratisation
 Modernization theory
– Historical experience in the West as model for the rest
– Spread of modernity: economic modernization and
trickle-down; diffusion of modern values; spread of
liberal democracy
 Historical sociology
– Changing relationship between the state and classes
shape the political system, i.e. a macrohistory of class
structures, collective actors and class conflict.
– Barrington Moore: political outcome of interaction
between three classes: the peasantry, the landed upper
classes and the bourgeoisie. Three routes to modernity: a
bourgeois revolution leading to capitalism and democracy;
a revolution from above leading to industrialization and
fascism; a revolution from below leading to communism.
Political elites and democratic transitions
 Transition theory
– Democracy crafted by conscious, committed actors, not economic
conditions. Pact-making within the political elite (politicians, party
officials, bureaucrats and office-holders). Separation of political elite
negotiations from economic circumstances and from popular forces.
Formal and substantive democracy
 Formal democracy
– Democratization as the regular holding of clean elections and the
introduction of basic norms (e.g. an absence of intimidation,
competition from at least two political parties, and an inclusive
suffrage) that make free elections possible. A slightly more
inclusive definition demands the introduction of liberal individual
rights (freedom of assembly, religious freedom, a free press,
freedom to stand for public office, etc.) or the creation of a
polyarchic order. (Grugel 2002, p. 5)
 Substantive democracy
– Democratization is the introduction and extension of citizenship
rights and the creation of a democratic state. Another way to
think of this is a rights-based or ’substantive’ democratization, in
contrast to ’formal’ democratization. The litmus-test for
democracy is not whether rights exist on paper but, rather,
whether they have real meaning for people. Inevitably, this implies
a redistribution of power. (Grugel 2002, p. 5)
South Africa:
Promising preconditions for real democratisation
 Political space
 Political mobilisation
 Extensive formal rights
 Past experiences:
 Institutional reforms
towards participation
 Political channels:
tripartite alliance of
ANC, SACP, COSATU
 Political discourses on
post-apartheid justice
conscientisation and
mobilisation through
anti-apartheid struggle
 Organisations: civics,
SANCO, unions, NGOs
 Well-organised civil
society
… but also real constraints
 Persistent and probably increasing relative and
absolute poverty, i.e. problematic
implementation of social rights
 Cooptation and depoliticisation of popular
forces, i.e. problematic popular political
participation
 Local developmental states but limited political
autonomy and capacity, i.e. problematic
construction of local governance
 In short: impressive formal democratisation but
also real constraints on real democratisation
South African social movements
Treatment Action Campaign
 Constitutional right to health services
– HIV/AIDS-treatment (nevirapine) for pregnant women
 Pretoria High Court ---> Constitutional Court
– Ruled against the government and gave a mandatory
order for a comprehensive plan HIV/AIDS treatment
– State claim: Interference in government policy-making
 Legal struggle for social rights
– Problematic field mainly due to resource issues (both for
civil society actors and government)
– Can budget and distribution questions be decided by the
courts? What is reasonable use of state resources?
– Siri Gloppen in ”Mennesker & Rettigheter” 2003, no. 1
South African Homeless
People’s Federation
 Realising the right to shelter for poor people in urban
areas
 Community mobilisation
– Savings groups and housing construction
– Alliance with People’s Dialogue
 Political mobilisation
– Non-partisan, but flexible political alliances
– Resource mobilisation (housing subsidies, uTshani)
– State housing strategy (”people-driven housing
process”)
Location in
political
terrain
Empowered Participatory Governance
 Empowered Participatory Governance
• Archon Fung & Erik Olin Wright (2003). Deepening Democracy.
Institutional Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance.
London: Verso.
 Practical orientation
• Emphasis on concrete everyday socio-economic development
needs
 Bottom-up participation
• Institutionalisation of new arenas for direct democratic
participation
 Deliberative solution generation
• Policy-decisions based on fora-based discussions
Design properties of EPG
 Devolution
–
–
Devolution of financial resources and decision making regarding resource
allocation
Kerala: Devolution of 40% of planning funds to Panchayat Village Planning Councils.
Grama sabhas - assemblies of ward- or panchayat-based residents, inputs to
higher-level planning/decision-making
 Centralised supervision and coordination
–
–
Requirements regarding organisation of the decision-making process
Kerala: rules regarding organisations of meetings (4 grama sabhas per year)
participation (women, scheduled castes) and allocation of resources (40-50% for
economic development, 40% for social development, max 30% for road
construction and at least 10% on women)
 State-centered (not voluntaristic)
–
–
Civil society activism may seek to influence policy making processes but leave
intact the basic institutions of state governance
EPG, in contrast, transforms the mechanisms of state power. Such
transformations happen in close cooperation with ”state agents”
Critical points
 Political and economic elites do not give up power
 Ordinary people do not really participate
 In short: continued domination rather than participatory
deliberation
 Political deficit: From institutional design for deliberation to
”What makes it happen?”
 Rebecca Abers: EPG requires a dual process of commitment-
building among state and society actors
Elite actors:
PB as alternative political strategy
 PB became a central strategy for re-election for PT
(Workers Party)
 PB responded to demands of neighborhood leaders, who
would otherwise rely on the populist-clientelist opposition
party
 PB benefitted a key sector of the economic elite
(construction companies)
 PB gained support from the middle classes by delivering
clean government
 PB facilitated government co-ordination
Popular actors:
Participation as worth the effort
 PB mobilised poor people to participate because it addressed
their prioritised needs
 PB utilised activists from neighborhood movements
 From competitive participation (based on self-interest) to
deliberation, - deliberation as a learning process
 PB utilised and generated, rather than undermined civil
society activism. In contrast to Tharakan’s account of partypoliticisation of civil society and problems of mobilising
amrginalised groups