HIS 105
Chapter 2
Four Great Revolutions
in Thought and Religion
Changes in Thought and Religion
800-300 B.C.E.
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Some things in common:
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Occurred near river valley civilizations
Born out of crisis
These major changes don’t happen often
Had great influence on culture and culture helped
to spread ideas
These changes have endured over time
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During 8th century B.C.E., Zhou Dynasty
disintegrated
Chaos followed
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Invasions
Rising merchant class changing old order
Old etiquette and old rituals changing
A search for new principles began
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5th and 6th centuries B.C.E. gave Chinese
society new thinkers: Confucius, Mencius,
Xunzi, and Laozi
Their teachings were important then and they
are still important today
Confucius
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Also known as Kung Fuzi
Born in 551 B.C.E.
Educated in writing, music, and rituals
Believed to be of lower nobility
His father died when Confucius was very
young and his mother fell on hard times
Worked in accounting and teaching
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He was opinionated and outspoken
Traveled from state to state with followers
looking for a ruler who would put his ideas
into practice
Most saw his ideas as impractical
His ideas or sayings are called his “Analects”
He believed in moderation, propriety,
optimism, good sense, and wisdom
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He was ethical and saw himself as a transmitter of
tradition
He saw a proper order to society, relationships, and
government
Confucius felt superior men were made, not born,
and they should be the ones to govern
Others should show respect, obedience, and support
to their superiors
Loyalty and obedience held society together
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Felt that if everyone fulfilled his/her duties,
then harmony would prevail
The well-being of society depends on the
morality of its members
Confucianism was not adopted as the official
philosophy of China until the second century
B.C.E. during the Han Dynasty (202 B.C.E. –
9 C.E.)
Mencius
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(Meng Ko)
(370 290 B.C.E.)
Believed that humans are inclined to be good
The role of education is to uncover and
cultivate that innate goodness
Stressed that government needed the
consent of the people to rule
Said people had the right to rise up and
overthrow an oppressor or unjust
government
Xunzi
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(300 – 237 B.C.E.)
Believed heaven was indifferent to whether China
was ruled by a tyrant or a wise man
Believed human nature was bad or at least, desires
and emotions, if unchecked, could lead to conflict
Emphasized education and etiquette as a restraint
on behavior
Said strong, authoritarian government was needed
to control humans
Laozi
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(Lao Tsu)
Had little use for government
Recommended a retreat from society as a
way to solve suffering
Contemplation of nature can help humans
find the Dao, the way, the mysterious
Recommended a return to simplicity; become
a babe, an uncarved block
Learn to be without learning
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Felt knowledge was bad because it created
distinctions
Learn to be without desires beyond the
simple needs of nature
The basis of the political philosophy of
Daoism is “not doing”
This means something between “doing
nothing” and “being but not acting”
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Rule without action
The way never acts, yet nothing is left
undone
Emphasis on withdrawal from the world,
communion with nature, and meditation
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Xia
Shang
Zhou
Qin ( 256-206 B.C.E.) (Shi Huangdi)
Han ( 206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E.)
Qin
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In 4th and 3rd centuries B.C.E., the Qin
Dynasty grew more and more powerful, and
Shi Huangdi, a warlord of the 3rd century
B.C.E., united China under Qin rule
Shi Huangdi
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Created a centralized state
Had grandiose public works projects
Experimented with bronze and ironworking
Improved tools and weapons
Freed peasants from bondage and allowed
them to own land
Gained peasants’ loyalty
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Peasants then joined the army to fight for
Shi Huangdi
Followed the writings of the Legalists
Legalists
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Founded by Shang Yang, a Qin ruler of the
4th century B.C.E.
Said power of China’s rulers was absolute
Wanted to find true peace for China
That required a unified country and a strong
state
Favored conscription and saw war as a way
to extend a country’s power
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Believed human nature was selfish and
punishments should be severe and impartial
That which weakens the state should be
punished
Laws should contain incentives for loyalty,
bravery, obedience, diligence, and frugality
Saw merchants as parasites
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Liked farmers
Legalism was the philosophy adopted by the
Qin which finally destroyed the Zhou in 256
B.C.E. and unified China in 221 B.C.E.
Hinduism
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Arose from Aryan society
Aryans had a social hierarchy that would
evolve into the rigid Indian caste system
Brahmans, who educated princes and were
advisors at court, also compiled and
interpreted the Vedic texts
These Vedic texts provided the religion which
shaped the lives of everyday people
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In this new religion, Brahmans were at the
top
There was a caste system with warriors,
priests, and commoners
Later merchants, artisans, and peasants
were added
The classes were called Varnas
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Each varna was subdivided into occupational
groups or caste
Holy men who did not labor were at the top
Those who worked hard and cleaned up the
filth of society were at the bottom
Boundaries between castes were rigid
In each caste life was laid out
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One’s caste and its accompanying duties
became known as one’s Dharma
The idea of reincarnation determined one’s
caste
A person’s life was full of merits and
demerits, and these became known as one’s
Karma
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The idea of reincarnation kept people under
control
Caste system stressed the importance of
one’s obligations and loyalties
Buddhism
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Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (566-486
B.C.E.)
Became known as the Buddha or the
“enlightened one”
Stressed meditation
By meditating, he saw his past lives and
learned how to stop the suffering of life
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He then pledged to help others release
themselves from it
The Buddha then spent the rest of his life
teaching others the “middle path” between
indulgence and asceticism
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4 Noble Truths
All life is full of suffering
– The source of suffering is desire
– If you get rid of desire, you will no longer suffer
– The path to this is eightfold: right understanding,
thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort,
mindfulness, and concentration
You will then achieve Nirvana
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He emphasized compassion for all beings
He gained a large following
His followers became monks and spread his
message
Buddhism provided an alternative to the
religion of the Brahmans
Buddha retained the ideas of karma and
reincarnation but rejected the Vedas
Mahavira and the Jain Tradition
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Jains were an Indian religious community
who sought to extricate themselves from the
material world and the endless cycle of birth,
death, and rebirth
They sought to eliminate evil thoughts and
actions
They tried to have compassion for all
sentient beings, hence vegetarianism
Hebrews
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Had belief in one God – Monotheism
Their monotheistic faith later influenced
Christianity and Islam
It is thought that Moses led the Hebrews to
Palestine looking for a homeland as
promised by Yahweh between 1900 and
1600 B.C.E.
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They were encouraged to give up the
worship of other gods and follow Yahweh and
his laws
If they did, they would be protected
These Jews felt they were then God’s
Chosen People
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Beliefs:
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One God
An overall divine plan
A divinely organized morality as spelled out in the
Torah (the Christian Old Testament)
Through this written book, Jews were able to hold
onto their identity through all subsequent
takeovers and dispersals
Greek Philosophy
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Greeks asked questions about their lives and
the universe without invoking God
This began an intellectual revolution using
rational thinking to answer their questions
Their way of looking at humans and their
world was encapsulated in their philosophies
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Many rationally questioned their world:
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Thales believed water was our primary substance
Anaximander believed humans originated in
water and evolved into their present state
Heraclitus said all is in motion; nothing ever really
exists
Parmenides & Zeno said reality is fixed; change is
an illusion of the senses
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
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Three great Greek philosophers who were
concerned with ethical, political, and religious
issues
Socrates (470-399 B.C.E.)
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Committed to searching for truth
Wanted moral self-enlightenment
“Know thyself”
Through discussion and questioning got others to
defend their views
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Had many followers and many detractors who didn’t
like to have their views questioned
He was condemned to death in 399 B.C.E. for
corrupting the morals of youth because he was
skeptical of religion
Felt we should use self-examination to get to the
truth
Had a chance to go into exile but chose death
because it was Athenian law and drank hemlock
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Plato (429-347 B.C.E.)
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Student of Socrates
Like Socrates, believed in the polis and its laws
Prolific writer
Founded the Academy in 386 B.C.E. in Athens
Taught others through dialogue and discussion
Grew up during Peloponnesian War
Experienced democracy and imperialism
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Felt humans were a pale image of what they
could be
Felt justice consists of each person doing what
he/she is best suited for
Taught Aristotle
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Aristotle (384-322 B.C.E.)
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pupil of Plato
Founded Lyceum where students gathered,
ordered, and analyzed all human knowledge
Stressed the importance of moderation in human
behavior and promoted virtue
Said every object has some purpose in the
universe
Was the tutor of Alexander the Great
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Even though philosophers looked for truths
of the universe, the rest of Greek citizens
looked to their gods, who were styled after
humans, for enlightenment; polytheism