1
Andrew Stidsen
HI Capstone
Dr. Briesacher
3/20/15
The American Empire of Aviation
Mankind has long had a fascination with achieving flight. From the first balloon
ride forward society was well on its way towards a drastic change, as aviation would
blossom and flourish into a booming empire that now touches nearly every aspect of
society on all corners of the earth. The first winged flight with the Wright brothers
marked another milestone and led to the technology seen in today’s planes even being
achievable. The importance of planes was immediately realized and would soon be put
to use in war, transportation, and in moving mail and goods across the world. The impact
of the aviation empire does not stop here however. Aviation has had enormous effects on
economies as well, not only in the manufacturing of planes and their raw materials, but in
the commercial aviation industry. The commercial aviation industry has a huge impact
on economies worldwide not only did it create jobs for millions, it opened up new
markets. A businessman based in New York can now meet face to face with a
businessman in Hong Kong next day if need be. This level of globalization would not
have been possible without the aviation empire being as strong as it is. The importance
of aviation goes on and on and when examining its growth it becomes all to apparent that
2
the American empire of aviation has been built and colonized by many forces along the
way.
The humble beginning of the modern airplane was the brainchild of two brothers
from Ohio who dared to challenge what was known in the field. Wilbur and Orville
Wright had only a high school level education yet managed to solve an engineering feat
that many deemed impossible. The pair were mere glider hobbyists in the beginning
spending what time they had away from their bicycle shop working on perfecting gliders.
However their talent was soon noticed by one of the leading figures in the field of gliders,
Octave Chanute. Chanute saw that the brothers had created a glider that was far more
advanced and controllable than any others prior and encouraged the Wright brothers to
take a more serious approach.1 The brothers ignored all the prior knowledge in the field
and did all of their own testing and made their own data charts, which ultimately led to
the dream of controlled flight being a reality. December 17th, 1903 marks the Wright
brothers first successful controlled flight.2 They were able to control the craft by pulling
on cables that warped the wings in order to trim the craft and keep it level.3 The flight
lasted just mere seconds but marked the birth of a field that would grow into an empire
and have an enormous impact on todays increasingly globalized world.
The years that followed the Wright brother’s first flight are now recognized as the
“birdman” era of aviation.4 The extent of aviation at this time consisted of innovators
and daredevils doing exhibitions for the public to show the capabilities of planes. Planes
1
2
Smith, Henry Ladd. Airways. New York: Russell & Russell, 1965.13
Smith, Airways.24
Wright, Orville and Wilbur. O & W Wright Flying Machine. Patent 821393. 22 May
1906. Print.
4 Smith,35.
3
3
from the birdman era were greatly underpowered and delicate in design. They were
made of thin metal wires and bamboo and mostly powered by engines under 50hp.5 This
era would come to an end as the first World War took the lead in aviation’s advancement.
The military would effectively take control and in a sense colonize the field of aviation
during this time, making it their own and being responsible for its well being and
development. Forward just a few years to 1918 and the airplane was a far more advanced
and reliable machine all in thanks to the military controlling the newly developing
industry. Military planes of 1918 had more than doubled the speed that birdman era
planes were capable of; a mere 60 mph in 1913 to a blistering 130mph in 1918.6
Considerable advancements were made in this crucial stage of aviation that would lead to
the American aviation empire as a whole becoming so widespread and strong. Military
involvement in the field of aviation changed the industry in a number of ways.
One readily apparent way that military involvement changed the field of aviation
and propelled it to empire like status was the rate of change made possibly by
government funding. The rate of change in production numbers, technology, and
infrastructure was increased at an alarming clip once military budgets rather than just
independent companies and inventors backed the industry. For instance in WWI alone
America put a billion and a quarter dollars into the development of aircraft.7 Though
many argue that the money was ill used since aviation had a small impact on WWI a lot
of good was done for the industry because of this increased spending and attention.
Infrastructure was built up at this time, such as airfields, which sored from only 2 before
Smith,23.
Ibid,35.
7 Ibid,37.
5
6
4
military backing to over 40.8 The development of personnel was equally if not a more
important result of military involvement in the industry in WWI. Numbers of trained
aviation officers sored at this time from 55 to 20,000, which would have a lasting effect
on other aviation related industries in post war America. 9 The number of aviation
mechanics was increased as well which had equally important implications for the
industry in Americas post war climate. The industry of aviation took a leap forward at
this time as well. In 1918 alone when the US began utilizing the plane in WWI more
planes were produced in one year than Great Britain had produced throughout all of
WWI.10 The military of WWI chose to colonize the field of aviation, they poured money
into the industry when it was in its infancy with full confidence that it would eventually
be a crucial industry in America and a lethal tool at a time of war.
A lasting effect of the American military’s roll in WWI aviation was the post war
industries that it made possible. With increased aviation infrastructure, personnel, and
technology created in WWI other uses for aviation emerged in the post war climate. Air
mail delivery for instance would make its contribution to the aviation empire and is still
plays a pivotal roll in the American aviation empire of today. Air mail was the first
widespread instance of commercial aviation and the industry was born in the United
States in 1918. The worlds first regular air mail service was from New York to
Washington DC and one round-trip was made a day, six days a week. 11 Its beginnings
Smith,40.
Ibid
10 Minority Report, Committee on Military Affairs, United States Senate, April 10,
1918, as reported in “Senate Investigation of the War Department,” Arial Age, Vol.
VII, P. 162c(April 15, 1918).
11 Eney, John. "U.S. Air Mail Service – 90th Anniversary." U.S. Air Mail Service.
Accessed April 21, 2015. http://www.antiqueairfield.com/features/us_airmail.html.
8
9
5
are humble as are the rest of aviation’s firsts, however the impact it has left on the empire
of aviation is monumental. The first airmail service was put together using the excess
and undesirable planes the military was no longer interested in. The Jn-4h for instance
was use by the Army Air Service the first few months to deliver the mail.12 Considering
even this early and underfunded airmail service was surprisingly efficient, delivering 93
percent of its mail on schedule. 13 After the Army Air Service delivered the mail quite
successfully for a few months the United States Postal office took over control of the air
mail routes, which marked a huge leap forward in the the empire of aviation; the first
example of commercial aviation.
The USPS further colonized the field of aviation by having a plane designed
specifically to be used in delivering mail. Jenny’s leftover from WWI were put aside and
replaced by the specially designed Jr-1B’s. The Jr-1B and the DH-4Ms were more fit for
the job of carrying mail, and had a cargo load limit of 200 and 500 pounds respectively
which made for a more efficient and capable air mail system.14 Routes expanded
westward as plane technology increased the speed and distance which mail could be
carried. Most importantly however was the effect that the Air Mail Act of 1925 in
particular had on the empire of aviation. The Air Mail Act ultimately led to large scale
commercial passenger airlines being a reality in a number of ways. Firstly the Air Mail
Act privatized certain routes under the belief that the government should not have total
control of the air mail system. One of the most notable early routes to be privatized was
between Chicago, Detroit, and Cleveland and was carried out by none other than Henry
Eney, “U.S. Airmail Service- 90th Anniversary”.
13 Smith,59.
14 Eney, “U.S. Airmail Service- 90th Anniversary”.
12
6
Ford.15 Ford who many know as the famous automaker transferred his innovative and
businessman attitude towards aviation. He hired expert engineers and developed and
constructed an all metal monoplane craft.16 Privatized Contract Air Mail (CAM) had a
huge effect on the empire of aviation, as it fostered advancement in aircraft at a rate far
faster than ever seen before. The rapid advancement was cause by the manner in which
CAM companies were paid for mail deliveries. CAM’s were paid at first by the weigh of
mail they carried, however, this changed to being paid by the volume of their cargo
holds.17 Changing the payment system to volume had a direct effect on the empire of
aviation and through this change commercial passenger airlines were born. Now that
cargo holds on mail planes were becoming larger and larger, seats for paying passengers
were added to many large mail planes giving birth to large scale commercial passenger
airlines.
The development of air mail was important in itself as it still remains an
enormous part of our daily lives and economy, however, the doors that air mail opened
up for other industries was equally important. Commercial passenger airlines spawned
directly from the advancements made as a result of the air mail industry. Furthermore,
commercial airlines first began to colonize the field of aviation in effect as a side
business of airmail fitting passengers alongside mail, or into empty mail planes.
However the US public soon became infatuated with the idea of commercial flight and
advancements made it more and more accessible and practical for the general public.
Eney.
Ibid.
17 Ibid.
15
16
7
The airmail industry had certainly colonized aviation and not only created its own
market but spawned a new flourishing market that would have major impacts on aviation
and society as a whole; commercial passenger airlines. From humble beginnings where
passengers could hope to land one of the few less than luxurious seats aboard a mail
plane, to the current day multi trillion dollar industry commercial passenger airlines have
colonized the field of aviation in their own right and furthermore, led to aviation being a
tool of empire that now reaches each corner of the world.18 When the birth of American
passenger airlines is mentioned one company and one man come to mind. Pan American
Airways is that company, and Juan T. Trippe is that man. Pan American Airways was by
far one of the most influential forces on American aviation and led to many firsts in the
empire of aviation. Pan American Airways was founded in 1927 and would play one of
the most pivotal rolls in American aviation. Pan American was the first commercial
company to fly to a number of destinations outside of the continental United States. The
first of these destinations was South America, using large passenger landplanes and
flying boats.19
Pan American Airways colonization of aviation brought about a great deal of
technological advancement to the empire in the process of developing their
transcontinental fleet. The need for a large plane capable of long strenuous flights led to
further development in the field of aviation. The Pratt and Whitney Twin Wasp engine
was an essential technological breakthrough that was a direct response to transcontinental
18
Air Mail Act of 1925 Report [To Accompany H.R. 6511]. 1934.
19
"Pan American Airways." America by Air. Accessed May 9, 2015.
8
flight. This engine was the most advanced powerful and capable of its time, and made
transcontinental flight a reality. Pan American Airways put the engine to use five years
after its development and outfitted their planes in the transpacific fleet with the
workhorse. The engine was built in Hartford Connecticut by the Pratt and Whitney
company and was one of the first air cooled radial engines, boasting fourteen cylinders
and eight hundred horsepower. 20 Aside from mechanical advancements Pan American
Airlines would also make advancements to their crafts that would alter the way customers
flew. The creature comforts outfitted in many of Pan American Airlines’ planes are
luxurious to make most modern flyers envious. The Douglas Sleeper Transport for
instance that Pan Am utilized for transcontinental flights was outfitted with seats that
folded down into comfortable mattresses.21 However impressive the technological
advancements that Pan American Airways were either directly or indirectly behind was
not the most important impact their colonization left on the empire of aviation. More
important was the elimination of economic boundaries as the United States aviation
empire increased its global reach.
Nearly ten years later the company established both transpacific and transatlantic
routes.22 The significance of these three routes goes far beyond Americans being able to
vacation in foreign countries. These routes will lay the foundation for what current day
American aviation has grown into. The importance of these routes is multifaceted in that
20
J.M. Shoemaker, T.B. Rhines, H.H. Sargent, Jr., (1935) "The Cooling of Radial
Engines: A Further Report on the Research Work of the United Aircraft, Vought
and Pratt Whitney Group", Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology, Vol.
7 Iss: 11, pp.283 - 289
21 Hudson, Kenneth. Air Travel a Social History. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman and
Littlefield, 1972,60.
22 “Pan American Airways”.
9
it had serious implications for the United States global image, global economy, and
ultimately was the beginning of the industry of aviation truly being a tool of the
American Empire. Commercial flight was becoming more and more accessible at this
time as well as becoming a smart business decision. For instance, it was becoming
financially more effective for a company to send a businessman on a trip using air travel
apposed to surface travel when the cost of transportation plus the time spent traveling
with pay was considered.23 Perhaps one of the most important events in commercial
flights history to this point was the recognition that the industry and technology had
become advanced enough to be considered safe. No single event demonstrated this more
than when the clause that disallowed celebrities under contract to fly was lifted.24 Now
that commercial flight was not only considered safe, but was becoming more economical
and convenient, new markets were increasingly emerging and the United States was
increasing its global economic reach and power, a key motivating factor for building the
empire of aviation. The world as Americans knew it was essentially shrinking and while
the world shrank, America’s global influence was on the rise.
The United States Federal government also had set its sights on the empire of
aviation and colonized the field in its own way, with legislation that controlled the
emerging field. Federal regulation of commercial aviation had an enormous effect on the
industry. One of the most influential changes in commercial aviation came about when
the federal government began regulating the industry when the creation of the Civil
23
Hudson, Kenneth, 50.
24
Ibid, 60.
10
Aeronautics Act of 1938 established the Civil Aeronautics Board.25 The Civil
Aeronautics Board essentially overran the field of commercial aviation and possessed all
of the power to shape the fields future. Two major changes came about from the creation
of the Civil Aeronautics Board. One change was the Civil Aeronautics Board controlling
which airlines would fly which routes. 26 This was important because it resulted in well
established airline companies such as Pan American Airways having the upper hand over
less established airlines which only furthered the extent that these major companies
colonized the field. Secondly the Civil Aeronautics Board controlled the fares that
airlines charged. This led to companies competing not by price but by level of comfort
they could provide their passengers, further developing technology in commercial planes.
Though deregulation came some years later in 1968 to allow for competitive ticket prices
the impact left behind from the years of regulation still remains quite apparent.
Though the first commercial flight had taken place a few short years after the
Wright brothers famous flight, airmail had made promising advancements, and big
business like Pan American Airways have contributed greatly to the commercial aspect of
aviation, there was yet another important imperial power on the emerging field; The
Second World War. The rate that aviation advanced during this time was unprecedented.
Hugely capable fighters and bombers were born and the importance of holding the largest,
25
Whitnah, Donald Robert. Safer Skyways: Federal Control of Aviation, 1926-1966.
Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press, 1966.
26
"The History of Airline Industry." Travel Tips. Accessed May 11, 2015.
11
most advanced air fleet was recognized by the United States, an attitude that would shape
the empire of aviation for years to come.
With the Japanese surprise aerial attack on the United States naval fleet at Pearl
Harbor, the United States rushed full on into the war efforts. The military once again
would colonize aspects of the aviation empire in order to further develop aviation. The
development of World War II propelled American aviation into a period of huge change,
in both technology and numbers of craft and personnel. Control over American wartime
aviation would also change hands a few times during this period, which would prove to
have long-term effects. The Army Air Forces had performed so well in World War II
that a new branch of the military was created; the United States Air Force. The creation
of a separate branch of military geared towards aviation was a milestone, and marked the
realization that the United States would maintain and improve on the most advanced air
fleet in the world.
1939 Adolf Hitler invades Poland sending the Marine Corps of Aviation into
hyper drive as a precautionary measure. The number of planes and personnel grew at a
steady clip, however it was the Japanese attack on Peal Harbor that led to the next change.
The army took control of American war aviation shortly after the attack creating the
Army Air Force and ramping up production of aircraft tenfold. 27 American aviation
would eventually grow to dominate the war in its last year in both the European and
"Missions Part Two: Air Power Comes of Age in World War II." History Part 2.
Accessed May 11, 2015. http://www.airforce.com/learn-about/history/part2/.
27
12
Pacific fronts. American crafts numbered eighty thousand and Army Air Forces
personnel clocked in at two million three hundred thousand.28
Technological breakthroughs were made on the American empire of aviation
during World War II at unprecedented rates. Wood and fabric biplane fighters of the
First World War were merely a relic of the past and were replaced by all metal single
winged fighters that were extremely capable in speed and maneuverability.29 Couple this
with the fact that they were armed to the teeth with new technology such as remote
controlled guns, pressurized cockpits, and high horsepower engines, and it’s no wonder
that the US Army Air Forces reigned supreme in World War II.30 The most capable
bomber was also born out of necessity during WWII; the B-29 Superfortress. The most
infamous B-29 from the war is notably the Enola Gay, responsible for dropping the first
atomic bomb on Japan, effectively leaving Japan no other option but to end the war. The
true show of Americas’ aviation superiority came with the dropping of the atomic bombs
on Japan using B-29 bombers proving that the Unites States was in fact the world’s most
dominant aviation empire. This was a unspoken title that the United States would seek to
maintain from this point forward as it showed superiority over other nations and fueled
the empire with pride and nationalism due to its accomplishments.
Fueled by the desire to remain the head of the empire of aviation coupled with
the inherent need to contain communism led to major advancements in American Air
Force aviation. Communist threat essentially shaped and colonized American aviation
Missions.
"World War II Aviation." World War II Aviation. Accessed May 11, 2015.
http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/WWII-UHC/.
28
29
30
Ibid.
13
since it directly led to aviation advancements in the name of both defense and offense. A
major aspect of the Cold War was centered around technology dealing with aviation and
the weapons that planes were capable of delivering. The Cold War threat was intensified
when the Soviet Union developed their own atomic and hydrogen bombs and the United
States defense plan relied heavily on aviation which lead to leaps and bounds of
advancement being made.31 The defense strategy of the United States against communist
threat was basically deterrence. By having a large and advanced defense system the
potential communist threat was checked by superior military might especially the United
States mighty Air Force. The triad defense strategy’s cornerstone was in fact rooted in
aeronautics.32 The Air Force adopted the Strategic Air Command plan as a defense to
issues communism was bringing about. The Strategic Air command put the Air Forces
planes and defense systems in strategic locations which would allow a quick mobilization
and strike if deemed necessary. Out of necessity longer range bombers were created,
which is but one way the communist threat and the Cold War had influenced American
aviation. The bomber that proved most useful in this plan was the long range B-52
Stratofortress. The most highly capable of the B-52’s, it was a technological marvel
brought about by the need for a long range delivery system for large loads of bombs as
well as the atomic bomb. The B-52 Stratofortress was equipped with eight jet engines
"Missions Part Three: Countering the Communist Threat During the Cold War."
History Part 3. Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.airforce.com/learnabout/history/part3/.
32 Ibid.
31
14
and was a crucial component to the United States empire of aviation, certainly born out of
the era were Cold War and communist threat colonized American Aviation. 33
The Cold War also colonized new areas previously unfathomed. The great Space
Race between the Soviet Union and the United States went into full swing when the
Soviet satellite Sputnik was successfully launched.34 The Space Race was an interesting
development because it had colonized American aviation at a level never seen before, it
brought the field to the moon. Development of a capable spaceship and a capable suit
made this possible and the United States empire of aviation had claimed and out of world
territory when Neil Armstrong planted the American flag.35 This event marked the end
of the Space Race, however, did not mark the end of developing NASA further.
The effect of all these forces putting their own spin on the American empire of
aviation is incredible. From a global standpoint aviation plays a huge roll as it has shrank
the world by cutting travel and delivery times by so much. Nearly every industry in the
world utilizes aviation in some way shape or form today. The commercial aviation
industry on its own has grown to proportions that dwarf many countries by shear number
of employees. Todays modern aviation industry employs over fifty seven million people,
and generates over two trillion dollars annually.36 No other country benefits more from
"Boeing." : Historical Snapshot: B-52 Stratofortress. Accessed May 12, 2015.
http://www.boeing.com/history/products/b-52-stratofortress.page.
33
34
"NASA Established." History.com. Accessed May 12, 2015.
Ibid.
"Social and Economic Benefits of Aviation - Air Transport Action Group (ATAG)."
Social and Economic Benefits of Aviation - Air Transport Action Group (ATAG).
Accessed May 12, 2015. http://www.atag.org/our-activities/social-a-economicbenefits-of-aviation.html.
35
36
15
all of this global connectedness than the United States, who’s economy is increasingly
becoming dependent on other nations for raw material, assembly, production, and labor.
This level of economic globalization was made possible by the American empire of
aviation.
Like many traditional empires of the past have been tested so has the American
empire of aviation. International law and policy has become a huge part of the empire, as
have threats to the United States directed at the empire of aviation. International
cooperation is also seen however on a high level, much in the way that great emperors of
the past dealt with foreign policy. The international space system is a prime example of
the global connectedness of the empire, and an example of the great things that are
possible when working together. However with how globally connected the empire is,
literally linking to every corner of the world, a number of issues arise. Practices carried
out by the American empire of aviation are also questioned as actions of traditional
emperors have been questioned. For instance the use of drones in the middle east to cary
out attacks comes under scrutiny by many. Sickness can spread, as witnessed recently
with the Ebola scare spread from Africa to the United States through air travel. The
empire has also been grossly misused by those wishing to do harm to the United States as
in the case of terrorism, most notably, the 911 hijackings. These issues that arise solidify
American aviation as an empire, as it is subjected to many of the same issues a traditional
empire faces.
American empire of aviation commands respect from all around the world. From
humble beginnings the field had grown into a multifaceted empire that stands as a symbol
16
of technological and military superiority. Connecting not only people but markets, is a
huge aspect of the American empire of aviation and has benefited the United States
economy greatly. From a defense standpoint the United States Air Force coupled with
Navy installations keep peace throughout the world just by being present in a location. .
Stealth bombers, fighters, and helicopters are now a reality, and are invaluable tools to
the American empire of aviation Many factors have colonized the general field of
American aviation along the way separately and for their own desires and necessities.
Inventors, wars, industries, and consumers have all shaped American aviation and
developed their fields in their own ways however all of these developments have
converged and amassed themselves into a global empire that cannot be ignored. Much
like an empire the American aviation industry as a whole is striving to strengthen itself
and remain at the forefront of industry. Possessing the most powerful and capable Air
Force in the world remains a priority of the American empire of aviation and as one can
see with the rapid rate of current technology the empire will be an enduring one.
17
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