Human Memory
Encoding:Getting Information Into Memory
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Three key processes of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval.
Encoding involves forming a memory code.
Storage is maintaining encoded information in memory over time.
Retrieval involves recovering information from memory.
If you want to remember something being told to you, or remember a
lecture in class, you must pay very close attention and be able filter out
other distractions or stimuli around you.
Attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or
events.
Encoding:Getting Information Into Memory
We all have a one track mind. We can not focus our attention on two or
more stimuli at the same time.
For example, we can not have a conversation with one person and pay close
attention to the conversations around us at the same time.
Another example is texting and driving. It is impossible to focus our attention
on the road at the same time while driving.
Encoding:Getting Information Into Memory
There are three deeper levels of processing: Structural, phonemic, and
semantic.
Structural encoding is shallow processing that emphasizes the physical
structure of a stimulus.
(If words were flashed on a screen structural encoding registers things such as capitals,lowercase, how
long the words are)
Phonemic encoding emphasizes what a word sounds like. It involves
naming or saying the words. (sound)
Semantic encoding emphasizes the meaning of verbal input. It also involves
thinking about the objects and actions the words represent (actual meaning
of word)
Encoding:Getting Information Into Memory
Levels of processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processing
result in longer-lasting memory codes.
Elaboration is linking a stimulus to other information at the time encoding.
Elaboration helps you remember information.
Imagery and self-referent encoding
Imagery is the creation of visual images to represent the words that need to
be remembered.
Dual-coding theory holds that memory is enhanced by forming semantic
and visual codes. mental imagery can enhance memory.
Self referent encoding is deciding how the information is personally relevant
to you. this can improve recall because it promotes elaboration and
organization of the information
Storage: maintaining information in memory
Sensory memory preserves information usually only for a fraction of a
second.
Short term memory can maintain unrehearsed information for about 20
seconds.
You can remember information by rehearsal, which is repetitively verbalizing
or thinking about the information you just learned or were told.
(When given a phone number , you might recite it over and over in your head so you can remember
it. )
Capacity of storage
Short Term memory is very limited
in the number of items it can hold.
If we are given a list of items to
memorize, we will only be able to
recall about seven or less items.
You can enhance your short term
memory by chunking.
Chunking is grouping large
amounts of numbers or
information in single units, that
have to be remembered.
Memory
Long term memory has an unlimited capacity and can hold information over
lengthy periods of time. Information is stored here permanently, but can
sometimes not be retrieved.
Flashbulb memories are vivid and detailed recollections of momentous
events or experiences.
(Most people can remember exactly where they were at and what they were doing at the time of
John F. kennedy's assassination or the 9/11 terrorist attack on the world trade center.)
Retrieval: Getting Information out of
Memory
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Cues can help us retrieve information.
A retrieval cue is a stimuli that can help gain access to memories or
information.
The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is the temporary inability to retrieve
something you know and its just out of reach
We use context clues to help retrieve information. this is when we try to
remember what we were doing or where we were at at the time of
encoding.
Sometimes when we attempt to recall an experience, our recollection of it
can be incorrect. This is called the misinformation effect. Our
Recollection is altered by misleading post event information.
How Knowledge is Organized in Memory
Knowledge can be organized and
stored into memory by
clustering, which is organizing
information into categories and
you can remember similar or
related items in groups.
A schema is an organized cluster
we generally know of an object or
event from previous experiences
with that object or event.
(our schema of an office would be
desks, chairs, pens, pencils,
computer, etc.)
Forgetting
Retention refers to the proportion of material remembered.
A recognition measure of retention requires subjects to select from options,
this helps recall information. This is why a multiple choice test would be
easier than an essay question.
Why do we forget?
ineffective encoding- lack of attention, not practicing memorization
Decay- the decay theory proposes that our memory traces fade over time.
retroactive interference- new information impairs the retention of previously
learned information.
proactive interference- previously learned information interferes with the
retention on new information
Amnesia
Retrograde amnesia is the loss of
memories for events that occurred
prior to the onset of amnesia.
(someone gets in a car accident and because
of the head trauma they can not remember
events that happened before, or people
they have met before.)
Anterograde amnesia is loss of
memories for events that happen
after the onset of amnesia
(someone gets in car accident but because of
head trauma they can not remember people
they meet after, or remember where they
parked their car)
Systems and types of memory
Declarative memory handles factual information (dates, names,events)
Nondeclarative memory houses memories for actions, skills, and emotional
responses (emotions,simple life skills, how to walk, play sports, drive a car)
Semantic memories contain general knowledge that is not tied to the time
when the information was learned
Episodic memories are chronological, or dated recollections of personal
experiences.