Chapter 2
The Brain and Behavior
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• The nervous system
• Neurons
• Structures of the brain and their functions
• The endocrine system
• Brain damage, plasticity, and repair
• Genetics and behavior
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Nervous System
• Two types of communication
• Electrochemical communication circuitry
• Billions of communicating cells
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Nervous System: Primary Divisions
• Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Brain and Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Network of nerves connecting CNS to body
• Two subdivisions:
• Somatic nervous system
• Autonomic nervous system
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Nervous System: PNS Divisions
• Somatic nervous system
• Sensory information from skin and muscles to CNS
• Autonomic nervous system
• Messages to and from internal organs
• Two subdivisions:
• Sympathetic nervous system  arousing
• Parasympathetic nervous system  calming
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Nervous System: Stress
• “Fight or flight” reaction
• Function of sympathetic nervous system
• Corticosteroids
• Stress hormones
• Acute stress is momentary
• Chronic stress is continuous
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Nervous System: Cells
• Neurons
• Nerve cells
• Information processing
• Glial cells
• Support
• Nutritional benefits
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Neurons: Structure
• Cell body / Soma
• Dendrites
• Axon
• Myelin sheath
• Terminal Buttons/Branches
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The Neuron
Terminal
Buttons
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Neural Impulse
• Resting potential
• Stable, negative charge of inactive neuron
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Neural Impulse
• Action potential
• Brief, positive electrical charge, or firing
• Abides by the all-or-nothing principle:
• Once the electrical impulse reaches its threshold,
it fires and moves down the axon without losing
any of its intensity
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11
The Action Potential
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Synapses and Neurotransmitters
• Synapses
• Terminal Button, Synaptic Gap, Dendrite/Soma
• Neurotransmitters
• Stored in synaptic vesicles (sacs)
• Released into synaptic gap
• Receptor Sites
• Neurotransmitters fit into receptor sites
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How Synapses and Transmitters Work
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Neurochemical Messengers
• Neurotransmitters are excitatory, inhibitory, or
both
• Chemicals (drugs) influence behavior by
interfering with neurotransmitters
• Agonist
• Drug that mimics or increases effects of
neurotransmitter
• Antagonist
• Drug that blocks effects of neurotransmitter
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Neurochemical Messengers
• Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Stimulates firing of neurons
• Involved in action of muscles, learning, memory
• Alzheimer disease: ACh deficiency
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Neurochemical Messengers
• Gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
• Keeps many neurons from firing
• Anxiety: Low levels of GABA
• Norepinephrine
•
•
•
•
Inhibits firing of neurons in CNS
Excites heart muscle, intestines, urogenital tract
Depression: Too little norepinephrine
Agitated, manic states: Too much norepinephrine
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Neurochemical Messengers
• Dopamine
•
•
•
•
Helps to control voluntary movement
Affects sleep, mood, attention, learning, rewards
Parkinson disease: Low levels of dopamine
Schizophrenia: High levels of dopamine
• Serotonin
• Involved in regulation of sleep, mood, attention,
learning
• Depression: Lowered levels of serotonin
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Neurochemical Messengers
• Endorphins
• Natural opiates that mainly stimulate firing of
neurons
• Shield body from pain
• Elevate feelings of pleasure
• Oxytocin
• Hormone and neurotransmitter
• Important role in experience of love and social
bonding
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Studying the Brain
• Brain lesioning
• Abnormal disruption in the tissue of the brain
resulting from injury or disease
• Electrical recording
• Detects brain wave activity
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Brain Imaging
• X-ray  two-dimensional images, structure
• CT (or CAT) scan  three-dimensional images
• PET scan  metabolic changes, activity
• MRI  brain structure, magnetic fields
• f MRI  brain function, magnetic fields
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Organization of the Brain
• Hindbrain
• Adjacent to top part of spinal cord
• Midbrain
• Rises above hindbrain
• Forebrain
• Uppermost region of brain
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Structure and Regions in the
Human Brain
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Hindbrain
• Medulla
• Controls vital functions
• Breathing and heart rate
• Regulates reflexes
• Cerebellum
• Motor coordination
• Balance
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Hindbrain
• Pons
• Sleep and arousal
• Brain stem
• Includes much of hindbrain (but not cerebellum)
and midbrain
• Determines alertness
• Regulates basic survival functions
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Midbrain
• Reticular formation
• Involved in stereotyped patterns of behavior, such
as walking and sleeping
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Forebrain
• Limbic system
• Thalamus
• Basal ganglia
• Hypothalamus
• Cerebral cortex
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Forebrain: Limbic System
• Important in both memory and emotion
• Two principal structures
• Amygdala
• Discrimination of objects necessary for survival
• Hippocampus
• Has special role in storage of memories
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Forebrain: Thalamus & Basal
Ganglia
• Thalamus
• Serves as relay station for information
• Basal ganglia
• Works with cerebellum and cerebral cortex
• Controls and coordinates voluntary movements
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Forebrain: Hypothalamus
• Monitors:
• Eating, drinking, and sex
• Emotion, stress, and reward
• Helps direct endocrine system
• Regulator of body’s internal state
• Involved in pleasurable feelings
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Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex
• Occipital lobes
• Responding to visual stimuli
• Temporal lobes
• Hearing, language processing, memory
• Frontal lobes
• Personality, intelligence, control of voluntary
muscles
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Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex
• Parietal lobes
• Registering spatial location, attention, motor
control
• Somatosensory cortex
• Located at front of parietal lobes
• Processes information about body sensations
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Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex
• Motor cortex
• Located just behind frontal lobes
• Processes information about voluntary movement
• Association cortex
• Makes up 75% of cerebral cortex
• Integrates information
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Figure 2.15 - The Cerebral
Cortex’s Lobes and Association Areas
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Cerebral Hemispheres
• Corpus callosum
• Large bundle of axons connecting brain’s two
hemispheres
• Relays information between two sides
• Left Hemisphere
• Receives information from right side of body
• Language processing, such as speech and
grammar
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Cerebral Hemispheres
• Right Hemisphere
• Receives information from left side of body
• Processing nonverbal information, such as spatial
perception, visual recognition, and emotion
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Figure 2.18 – Corpus Callosum
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Endocrine System
• Endocrine system
• Set of glands that regulate activities of certain
organs
• Glands
• Organs or tissues that create chemicals that
control bodily functions
• Hormones
• Chemical messengers produced by endocrine
glands
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Endocrine System
• Pituitary gland
• Controls growth and regulates other glands
• Thyroid and parathyroid glands
• Adrenal glands
• Regulate mood, energy level, and ability to cope
with stress
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Endocrine System
• Pancreas
• Performs digestive and endocrine functions
• Ovaries and testes
• Produce hormones related to sexual development
and reproduction
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Brain Damage, Plasticity, and
Repair
• Collateral sprouting
• Axons of healthy neurons adjacent to damaged
cells grow new branches
• Substitution of function
• Damaged region’s function is taken over by
another brain area
• Neurogenesis
• New neurons are generated
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Brain Tissue Implants
• Brain grafts
• Implants of healthy tissue into damaged brains
• Stem cells
• Primitive cells with capacity to develop into most
types of human cells
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Genetics and Behavior
• Chromosomes
• Threadlike structures containing DNA
• DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Complex molecule that carries genetic information
• Genes
• Units of hereditary information
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Genetics and Behavior
• Genome
• Complete set of genetic instructions for making an
organism
• Human genome project
• International research program mapping human
genome
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Figure 2.22 - Cells, Chromosomes,
Genes, and DNA
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The Study of Genetics
• Dominant-recessive genes principle
• Dominant gene overrides recessive gene
• Polygenic inheritance
• Influence of multiple genes on behavior
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The Study of Genetics
• Molecular genetics
• Manipulation of genes using technology to
determine their effect on behavior
• Selective breeding
• Genetic method used to demonstrate importance
of genetic influence on behavior
• Reared in one of two environments:
• An impoverished environment
• An enriched environment
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The Study of Genetics
• Behavior genetics
• Study of degree and nature of heredity’s influence
on behavior
• Twin Studies
• Identical vs. fraternal twins
• Minnesota study of twins reared apart (1996)
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Genes and the Environment
• Genotype
• Genetic heritage
• Phenotype
• Observable characteristics
• Influenced by genotype and environmental factors
• Genetic expression
• Activity of genes is affected by their environment
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