IR437 NATIONALISM AND
ETHNICITY
NATIONALISM IN JAPAN
JAPAN
• Japan had fought on the side of the Allies (Britain, France, Russia,
Italy and later the U.S) in the First World War
• During the war, Japan supplied weapons to their European
partners particularly Russia
• They took advantage of the war by expanding their economic and
political influence in East Asia
• In addition to ruling Korea and Taiwan, Japan wanted to spread its
influence over to China.
• In 1915, Japanese diplomats forced Chinese government to accept
a list of terms known as Twenty One Demands
21 Demands
• Seizing the opportunity effected by the onset of war in 1914, and
by its status as an Allied power, Japan presented China with a
secret ultimatum in January 1915 designed to give Japan regional
ascendancy over China.
• The 21 demands in effect made China a Japanese protectorate
• required that China immediately cease its leasing of territory to
foreign powers and to ascent to Japanese control over Manchuria
and Shandong (Shantung) among other demands.
• Manchuria was important for its natural resources (minerals and
coal reserves) and farmland.
21 Demands
• For the Chinese Government grant to the Japanese subjects the
right of mining in South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia.
• For the Chinese Government agree to Japan's building a railway
connecting Chefoo or Lungkow with the Kiaochou Tsinanfu Railway.
• The Japanese subjects shall be permitted in South Manchuria and
Eastern Inner Mongolia to lease or own land required either for
erecting buildings for various commercial and industrial uses or for
farming.
Japan and the West
• When World War one ended, Japan received Germany’s Pacific
islands as mandates from the League of Nations
• The Japanese also entered into a series of military and
commercial agreements with Western powers
• In 1922, the disarmament conference in Washington led to a five
power agreement among Japan, Great Britain, U.S, Italy and
France which allowed Japan to become the world third largest
naval power after Great Britain and U.S
• Yet, in spite of this the Japanese were very bitter towards the
West
South Pacific Mandate
• The South Pacific Mandate was one of several mandates given by
the League of Nations to various governments following World War
I.
• The South Pacific Mandate consisted of islands in the Pacific
Ocean that were part of the German Empire and were occupied
by Empire of Japan during the war.
• The islands are now part of Palau, Northern Mariana
Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Marshall Islands.
Washington Naval Treaty
• The Washington Naval Treaty, also known as the Five-Power
Treaty, was a treaty among the major nations that had won World
War I, which by the terms of the treaty agreed to prevent an arms
race by limiting naval construction.
• It was negotiated at the Washington Naval Conference, which was
held in Washington, D.C., from November 1921 to February 1922,
and signed by the governments of the United Kingdom, the United
States, Japan, France, and Italy.
• It limited the construction of battleships,
battlecruisers and aircraft carriers by the signatories.
Washington Naval Treaty
• Immediately after World War I, the United Kingdom had the
world's largest and most powerful navy, followed by the United
States and more distantly by Japan.
• The three nations had been allied for World War I, but a
naval arms race seemed likely for the next few years. This arms
race began in the United States. President Woodrow Wilson's
administration announced successive plans for the expansion of
the U.S. Navy from 1916 to 1919 that would have resulted in a
massive fleet of 50 modern battleships.
• In response, the Japanese parliament finally authorised
construction of warships to enable the Japanese Navy to reach its
target of an "eight-eight" fleet programme, with eight modern
battleships and eight battlecruisers.
Japan and the West
• Japan felt that the West did not accept it as equal
• In 1919 League of Nations, dominated by Western powers refused
to accept Japan’s demands for a statement of racial equality in
the League’s charter.
• The Japanese regarded this rejection as humiliation
• In 1924, the U.S banned further Japanese immigration to its shores
• In response, Japanese staged demonstrations and boycotted
American goods
Japan and the West
• The Japanese was angered further by the West’s refusal to support
Japanese policy in China
• Japan wanted to tie China closer to itself
• The West wanted to retain the Open Door Policy
• Due to pressure from the West, Japan had to abandon the 21
Demands and recognize Western interests in China
Open Door Policy
• Secretary of State John Hay first articulated the concept of the
“Open Door” in China in a series of notes in 1899–1900.
• These Open Door Notes aimed to secure international agreement
to the U.S. policy of promoting equal opportunity for international
trade and commerce in China, and respect for China’s
administrative and territorial integrity.
• British and American policies toward China had long operated
under similar principles, but once Hay put them into writing, the
“Open Door” became the official U.S. policy towards the Far East
in the first half of the 20th century.
Social and Political Tension
• After the First World War, Japan faced political and economic
challenges at home
• One of the major concerned was population explosion or dramatic
increased in population
• Japan’s population had increased from 35 million in 1872 to about
60 million in 1925
• This was a challenged due to the high density in Japanese islands
Japan’s Industrial Growth
• Since emigration was cut off to places like the U.S, Japan had to
look for other ways to cope
• They place great emphasis on manufacturing and foreign trade
• It was hope that new factories and markets could provide
employment for the Japanese people
• Japanese government controlled banks provided capital and
encouraged the expansion of heavy industry or manufacture of
machinery and equipment needed for factories and mines
• Industries important to national defence like steel and railroads
were owned by the government but most Japanese economy was
owned by privately owned businesses known as “zaibatsu”
Zaibatsu
• is a Japanese term referring to industrial and financial business
conglomerates in the Empire of Japan, whose influence and size
allowed control over significant parts of the Japanese economy
from the Meiji period until the end of World War II.
• (Meiji - This period represents the first half of the Empire of
Japan during which Japanese society moved from being an
isolated feudal society to its modern form.)
• By definition, the zaibatsu were large family-controlled vertical
monopolies consisting of a holding company on top, with a wholly
owned banking subsidiary providing finance, and
several industrial subsidiaries dominating specific sectors of a
market, either solely, or through a number of sub-subsidiary
companies.
Examples of early zaibatsu
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The Big Four
Mitsubishi
Mitsui
Sumitomo
Yasuda
Japan’s Industrial Growth
• In 1920s and 1930s Japan’s industry grew rapidly and Japanese
manufactured goods began to flood world markets
• Increased manufacturing however, required new materials and
resources
• Japan had very few mineral and natural resources and therefore
had to look for them at other places
Social and Political Changes
• Japan’s working class became more important due to
industrialisation
• Because of overpopulation, lands had to be subdivided among
farmers
• Women in rural areas also found jobs in factories due to economic
expansion
• Labour unions became more powerful and saw increased in
memberships
• The growth of urban working class population produced
movements demanding for social changes
Social and Political Changes
• Intellectuals started organizing Socialist groups but these were
met with police repressions
• Urban middle class expanded as well in Japan
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Western influences shaped the urban life
American music, dancing and sports became popular
Rising standards of living produced the need for better education
With the growth of working and middle class, steps were taken
towards greater political democracy
Social and Political Changes
• In 1925, Japanese Parliament granted universal male suffrage and
voters increased from 3 million to 14 million.
• Japanese women however, did not receive the right to vote until
1947.
Political Weaknesses
• However, democracy remained limited in Japan
• Political power lay in the hands of nobles and industrialists
• Japanese Emperor Hirohito was a constitutional monarch but a
powerful symbol of traditional authority
• Behind the emperor was a group of influential military leaders
who were opposed to democratic reforms
• The appeal of antidemocratic nationalists groups increased in
1930s when Japanese economy deteriorated
Emperor Hirohito
Political Weaknesses
• A worldwide fall in prices caused by Great Depression devastated
Japan’s silk industries and other industries
• Millions of workers lost their jobs
• Some went begging on the streets
• In 1930, an assassin shot Prime Minister Osachi Hamaguchi
• Many impoverished families looked to strong minded military
leaders for solutions.
Militarism and daily life
• In 1930s, militarism began to influence all aspects of Japanese life
• Supporters of military programs opposed the spread of Western
lifestyles in Japan and favoured traditional Japanese ways
• Military dress such as the samurai swords, appeal to nationalist
sentiments
• Young children were made to carry out military drills in schools
and participated in parades
Military Expansion
• In 1931, Japanese military demonstrated just how powerful it had
become
• Without approval from the government army leaders invaded
northeastern region of China called Manchuria
• In 5 months Japanese army had conquered Manchuria
• The Japanese government could no longer control its army
• The conquest of Manchuria was a clear sign of the plans of the
military to dominate Japanese government at home and expand
Japanese influence abroad.
Military expansion
• Opposition to democratic government came from young military
officers
• Japanese from the rural background opposed the urban luxuries of
politicians and readily accepted the extremist ideas.
• Extremist groups in the military used violence to bend the
government
• In 1936 they organised an armed revolt against the government
• By early 1937, the army and the government had become one and
the same
Military expansion
• Many democratically minded Japanese hoped that Emperor
Hirohito would stop the spread of militarism
• The Emperor has a keen appreciation of Western ways
• Palace advisors however, were worried that a strong stand by the
emperor would increase the military leaders extremism
• They feared that the emperor would be removed and monarchy
would be abolished
Military expansion
• Japanese continued to rally support for their military leaders
• With no powerful political leaders at home, Japanese military
looked forward to conquering all of Asia
• Their dreams of a mighty Japanese empire like the dreams of
German and Italian leaders brought the world into the Second
World War.
Asia for Asians Propaganda