1. Scales of biodiversity
2. Species richness vs. Species evenness
3. Biodiversity in individuals
• Biodiversity in populations (4. artificial selection vs. 5. natural selection)
**you may want to put in two boxes**
6. Random changes in genetic equilibrium
7. Types of Speciation
8. Rate of natural selection

• Ecosystem diversity
• Species diversity
• Genetic diversity

• How many species are found on Earth?
– Scientists have named 2 million but are estimating around 5-100 million out there.
• Which group of organisms has the most species?
– Insects (total number of tropical insects could be
30 million.
– Scientists found that perhaps 8 million beetles species in the tropics that feed on one type of tree.

Species richness vs. Species evenness
Richness
• Number of species in a given area.
Evenness
• Tells whether a particular ecosystem is numerically dominated by one species or whether all of its species have similar abundances.

• Mutations: change in DNA
• Which of the following is a real mutation found in humans?
a. Lactose tolerant b. AIDS immunity c. Blue eyes

• Mutations
– Genetic change
– Can occur by chance
– Many are lethal
• Quickly eliminated
– Some are useful
• Become part of gene pool by the process of natural selection

Population Genetics and Evolution
• Populations, not individuals , evolve,
• Evolution occurs as a population’s genes and their frequencies change over time.
• This can happen by artificial selection or natural selection

• When humans determine which individuals breed.
– GMO’s and genetic engineering

• Nature decides the most fit organisms.
• A random process
• Charles Darwin’s theory of Evolution
– Individuals produce an excess of offspring
– Not all offspring survive
– Individuals differ in their traits
– Differences in traits can be passed on from parents to offspring.
– Differences in traits are associated with differences in the ability to survive and reproduce.

• Gene PoolAll of the alleles of the population’s genes are together like being together in a large pool.
 Genetic equilibrium-
Population in which the frequency of alleles remains the same over generations.

Random Changes in Genetic Equilibrium
• Genetic driftthe alteration of allelic frequencies by chance events.
– Greatly affect small populations
– Genes of the original ancestors represent only a small fraction of the gene pool
– Result in an increase of rare alleles

Child has six fingers due to genetic drift.
This child belongs to an
Amish Community in PA.
They are an isolated population due to religious and belief system.
One of the original ancestor’s have the recessive allele.
Because of the small gene pool, many individuals inherited the recessive allele over time

Random Changes in Genetic Equilibrium
• Gene FlowThe transport of genes by migrating individuals.
– In other words movement of individuals in and out of a populations.
• When an individual leaves a population, its genes are lost from the gene pool.
• When an individual enter a population, their gene are added to the gene pool.

Random Changes in Genetic Equilibrium
• Bottle-neck effect: if a population experiences a drastic decrease in size some genotypes will be lost and the genetic composition of the surviors will differ from the composition of the original group.

• Speciation occurs when members of similar populations no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

• The formation of a river may divide the frogs into two populations. A new form may appear in one population.
• Over time, the divided populations may become two species that may no longer interbreed, even if reunited.

• Geographic isolation-
Occurs whenever a physical barrier divides a population.

• Reproductive isolationoccurs when formerly interbreeding organisms can no longer mate and produce fertile offspring.
– Genetic material of the population becomes so different that fertilization can not occur
– Behavioral
• An example would be mating at different seasons

• Change in Chromosome Numbers
– Polyploid- Any individual or species with a multiple of the normal set of chromosomes.
– Flowering plants and important crop plants
• Wheat
• Cotton
• Apples

• Gradualism is the idea that species originate through a gradual change of adaptations.
• Punctuated equilibriumhypothesis that argues that speciation occurs relatively quickly, in rapid bursts, with long periods of genetic equilibrium .

How does evolution shape niches and determine species distribuation.

• Light
• Temperature
• Nutrients (nitrogen)
• Gases
• Habitat space
• Water
• Wind
• Latitude
• Altitude
• Soil type
• Population size
• Genetic diversity

Niche= where an organism is the most fit.
Fundamental Niche
• Full potential role of an organism
Realized Niche
• What it can realistically fulfill when taking into account predation and competition

Resource partitioning: the evolutionary change in species in response to selection pressures (usually from competition)

• Invasive species: species that are not native to a area and have no natural predators.

• Value of Ecosystems
• Changes to ecosystems
– Resistance vs. resilience
– Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
– Succession (primary vs. secondary)
• Biodiversity (results from changes)
– Scales
– Species richness vs. species evenness
– Biodiversity in individuals = mutations
– Biodiversity in populations = evolution
• Artificial vs. Natural Selection
– Changes in genetic equilibrium
– Types of speciation
– Rates of natural selection
– Things that effect natural selection
• Limiting factors
• Fundamental niche vs. realized niche
• Invasive species
• Resource partioning