Unit 3: Latin America
Chapter 9: Latin America: Physical Geography
Section 1: Physical Features
Latin America is a region of variety and contrast. It contains mountains, plains, rainforests, deserts, and
rivers. Geographic features divide Latin America into three smaller regions:
1. Mexico: Mountains dominate the region of Mexico and Central America. Between the
mountains in Mexico lies the Central Plateau. A plateau is a large raised area of mostly level
land.
2. The Caribbean: The Caribbean is a region of islands. The smaller islands are made from the
skeletons of tiny animals that formed a rocklike substance called coral.
3. South America: The region of South America contains many landforms. Perhaps the most
impressive are the Andes Mountains, which run some 4,500 miles along the western coast of
the region.
Latin America’s rivers include the mighty Amazon, which has more than 1,000 tributaries—rivers or
streams that flow into a larger river.
Water Resources of Latin America:
1. The Amazon River: Flows 4,000 miles. Drains an area of more than two million square miles.
Contains about 20% of the Earth’s fresh river water.
2. The Rio de la Plata system: Formed by the Parana, Paraguay, and Uruguay rivers. Separates
Argentina and Uruguay.
3. Lake Titicaca: World’s highest lake on which ships can travel. Lies in the Andes, between Peru
and Bolivia.
Latin America’s rivers serve as transportation corridors in places where it is hard to build roads.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Name the three regions of Latin America and identify one geographic feature of each region.
2. What lake serves as an important transportation corridor for shipping in Latin America?
Section 2: Humans and the Physical Environment
Many parts of Latin America have a tropical wet climate with hot, humid, and rainy weather all year
round. Other parts of Latin America, including most of the Caribbean, have a tropical wet and dry
climate. The weather is hot, but the rainy season does not last all year. From June to November, the
Caribbean is often hit with fierce hurricanes, which are a part of life for the people who live there.
Much of Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay have a humid subtropical climate with hot, wet summers
and cool winters. Farmers in these areas can raise crops, such as wheat and apples that need a cold
season to grow well. Farther south, on the plains of Patagonia, the climate is colder and drier. Farmers
raise sheep in this area.
Factors that affect climate include elevation, or the height of land above sea level. The higher the
elevation, the cooler the temperature. Nearness to the Equator also affects climate. Regions close to the
Equator are generally warmer than regions farther away. Wind patterns affect climate, too.
Varied Physical Environments: Climate affects both natural vegetation and human life.
 Andes Mountains
o At higher elevations, plants must withstand cooler temperatures, chill winds, and
irregular rainfall.
o People cannot live permanently about 10,000 feet, where temperature may remain
below freezing.
 Caribbean Islands
o Hurricane winds create massive waves.
o Storms tear roofs off houses, shatter windows, and yank trees from the ground.
 Amazonian Rainforest
o Thousands of plant species thrive in the consistently hot, humid, and rainy weather.
Climate in Latin America can vary greatly within each country.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Name three factors that influence climate in Latin America.
2. How does elevation affect the climate and people of the Andes?
Section 3: Geographic Features and Natural Resources
The distribution and use of natural resources in Latin America influence the economies of countries
there. Wood from Mexico’s forests in made into lumber and paper products. Central Americans use the
energy of flowing water to generate a form of electric power called hydroelectricity. Farmers grow
sugarcane, coffee, bananas, and other crops in the rich Caribbean soil.
Not every country shares in the wealth of Latin America’s resources. Some countries do not have the
money they need to develop their resources.
Oil is one of Latin America’s most valuable resources, but it is risky to depend on one crop or resource
such as oil. In the mid 1980s, oil companies produced more oil than the world needed. As a result of this
surplus, prices dropped. Mexico and Trinidad earned much less for oil exports than they had expected.
Latin American nations are trying to diversify, or add variety to, their economies. For example, El
Salvador used to depend too heavily on one crop—coffee. Today cotton, sugar, corn, and other crops
play an important role in El Salvador’s economy.
REGION
Mexico and Central America
TYPE
Riches of land and sea
The Caribbean
Farming and mineral resources
South America
A wealth of resources
EXAMPLE
Minerals: silver, gold, copper, oil,
natural gas; forests, rich soil,
fish, and shellfish
rich soil; minerals: bauxite,
nickel, and oil
Minerals, including oil; forests;
fish: tuna, anchovies; rich soil
The natural resources of Latin America are as varied as its physical features and climate.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Why is it important for Latin American nations to diversify their economies?
2. What resources are found in each region of Latin America?
Chapter 10: Latin America: Shaped by History
Section 1: Early Civilizations
Mayan civilization thrived in Central America and southern Mexico from about A.D. 300 to A.D. 900. The
Mayas grew maize, or corn, as well as other crops. Mayan priests developed a system of writing using
signs and symbols called hieroglyphics. About A.D. 900, the Mayas suddenly left their cities. No one
knows why.
Disappearance of the Mayas: Possible Explanations
1. Crop failures
2. War
3. Famine
4. Drought
5. Disease
Although the Mayas left their cities, they stayed in the region. Today, millions of Mayas live in Mexico,
Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador.
In the 1100s, the Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs changed swampy Lake Texcoco into
a magnificent city, which they called Tenochtitlan. It stood on the site of present-day Mexico City. It was
a center of trade and learning where doctors made medicines from plants and astronomers predicted
eclipses.
In the 1400s, Aztec warriors conquered other people in the region. They forced the conquered people to
pay tribute, or taxes, in food, cotton, gold or slaves.
In about 1200, the Incas settled in Cuzco, a village in the Andes. They built an empire that stretched
from present-day Ecuador south along the Pacific coast through Peru. The Incas increased their farmland
by building stone terraces into the sides of steep slopes and using aqueducts, pipes or channels
designed to carry water from a distant source.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Name one achievement made by each civilization: Mayan, Aztec, and Incan.
2. What are some possible explanations for the disappearance of the Mayas?
Section 2: European Exploration: Short and Long Term Effects
In the 1400s, Spain and Portugal became fierce rivals. Each tried to stop the other from claiming land in
the Americas. In 1494, Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas. A treaty is an agreement in
writing made between two or more countries.
The treaty set an imaginary line, at about 50 degrees longitude from North Pole to South Pole, called the
Line of Demarcation. It gave Spain the right to settle and trade west of the line. Portugal could do the
same east of the line.
Spanish rulers did not pay for the trips of the explorers who went to the Americas. Instead, rulers gave
the conquistadors, or conquerors, the right to hunt for treasure. Conquistadors agreed to give Spain one
fifth of any treasure they found.
By the 1540s, Spain claimed land throughout much of the Americas. The most powerful citizens in the
Spanish Empire came from Spain or had Spanish parents and lived in the city centers.
Mestizos, people who were of mixed Spanish and Native American descent, lived on the outskirts of
cities. The Spanish forced Native Americans to worked on haciendas—plantations owned by Spaniards
or the Catholic Church.
Exploration and Conquest of Latin America:
 Christopher Columbus
o Explorer
o Reached the Caribbean in 1492, when seeking a western route from Europe to Asia
 Hernan Cortes
o Conquistador
o Led army that killed the Aztec ruler Moctezuma, conquered Tenochtitlan, and reduced
the Aztec Empire to ruins in 1521
 Francisco Pizarro
o Conquistador
o Captured and killed Incan emperor, conquered most of the empire by 1535
In 15 years, conquistadors defeated the two most powerful empires in the Americas using guns,
cannons, and horses, which Native Americans had never seen.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. What agreement did Spanish rulers make with the conquistadors?
2. Identify the conquistadors who conquered the Aztec and Incan empires.
Section 3: Independence and the Spread of Democracy
Latin American colonies drew encouragement from revolutions in France and North America to gain
their own independence. A revolution is a political movement in which people overthrow one
government and set up another.
By 1825, most Latin American countries were independent and led by caudillos—military officers who
ruled very strictly with unlimited powers. After years of fighting and under strict control, Latin American
nations were very poor.
In the 1900s, foreign companies gained power in Latin America by investing, or spending money to earn
more money. Foreign companies made huge profits but did little to help Latin America build its own
economies. A country’s economy is made up of all the ways in which goods and services are produced
and made available.
To strengthen their economies, Latin American countries built their own factories to make goods and
grew different kinds of crops to develop their resources. Today, most Latin American countries want to
control their economies, so they limit how foreign investments can be made.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. What kinds of problems did Latin American countries face after they gained independence?
Chapter 11: Latin America: Rich in Culture
Section 1: The Cultures of Mexico
Although some people of Mexico live in rural, or countryside, areas, about 74% live in cities and large
towns. Most farmers, who are known as campesinos, plow the land and harvest their crops by hand.
Mexico’s population is growing at a rate that will cause the population to double in 20 to 30 years. Rapid
population growth makes it hard for young people in rural areas to find jobs. Many leave home to look
for work in urban, or city, areas.
Some people move to towns along the border with the United States. There they can work in factories
owned by American companies but located in Mexico where wages are lower. These border factories
are called maquiladoras.
As people flood into Mexican cities and border towns, jobs become scarcer. So some people have
decided to emigrate, which means to move permanently from one country to another. Some emigrants
enter the United States illegally, which has created a problem that the United States and Mexican
governments are trying to solve.
A Blend of Cultures:
Advanced Native American civilizations + Spanish language, religion, architecture, and music = mestizo
When Spain colonized Mexico in the 1500s, the combining of Spanish and Native American cultures gave
rise to another culture, the mestizo. Mexico blends these three cultures.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. How has population growth affected people in Mexico?
2. What three cultures are blended in Mexico?
Section 2: The Cultures of Central America
The countries of Central America form a crooked skinny isthmus that links Mexico and South America.
There is much diversity, or variety, among the people of the region. Spanish is the main language in six
of the seven countries. However, these countries have many other languages. Guatemala is home to
more than 20 languages.
Most Central Americans are Catholic, but some Native American religions blend elements of their
traditional religions with Christianity. The Roman Catholic Church fights injustice, the unfair treatment
of people, in Central America. Examples of injustice include people having their property taken away
from them and people being imprisoned without first having a fair trial.
In Central American cities, the wealthy people live in big houses, send their children to good schools,
and can afford good medical care. For the poor, city life is hard because there is a housing shortage. It is
not easy to find work or to feed a family.
The People of Central America:
GROUP
ORIGINS
Hondurans
Mostly mestizo, with both Spanish and indigenous ancestors
Costa Ricans
Many are direct descendants of Spaniards
Belizeans
More than half are of African or mixed African and European descent
In Belize people speak English, whereas Spanish is the main language in the six other Central American
countries.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. What term describes the cultures of Central America?
Section 3: The Cultures of the Caribbean
Many people came to the Caribbean as colonists, slaves, or immigrants, so the area has great ethnic
variety. An ethnic group is a group of people who share race, language, religion, or cultural traditions.
The ethnic groups found in the Caribbean are Native American, African, European, Asian, and Middle
Eastern.
The Caribbean population has grown to about 37 million. Nearly one-third of these people live on the
region’s largest island, Cuba.
Caribbean culture is known for its liveliness. People play music, such as reggae or calypso—a form of
song that is often played on steel drums. Caribbean food is a mixture from all the cultures of the islands.
People cook seafood, spicy curries from India, sausages from England, and Chinese dishes.
Many islanders observe the Roman Catholic tradition of Lent, the period of 40 days before Easter
Sunday. Lent is a solemn time. Before it begins, people throw a huge party called Carnival. The biggest
Carnival takes place in Trinidad and Tobago. Thousands of calypso fans follow musicians through the
streets, dancing and celebrating.
The First People of the Caribbean:
 Native Americans—Ciboney—lived on the islands for thousands of years
 South Americans—Arawaks—joined the Ciboney in about 300 B.C.
 South Americans—Caribs—joined the population in about 1000 A.D.
Spanish explorers enslaved the Native Americans and, as a result, almost all of the Caribs, Arawaks, and
other groups died of overwork and of diseases the Spanish brought with them.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Why does the Caribbean have such great ethnic diversity?
2. Who were the first people to live in the Caribbean?
Section 4: The Cultures of South America
There are four cultural regions in South America:
1. The first region is made up of Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana.
Their cultures are like those of the Caribbean islands.
2. A desert region, to the south and west, includes the Andean countries Peru, Ecuador, and
Bolivia. Many Native Americans live in this cultural region.
3. The third cultural region consists of Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay. Many ethnic groups live in
the big cities. Another culture exists on Argentina’s Pampas, or plains.
4. Brazil makes up the fourth cultural region. Many Native Americans live in Brazil, as do people of
African and mixed descent.
Outside of Chile, Argentina, and Uruguay, most rural South Americans with small plots of land are
subsistence farmers. They grow only enough food for their families to eat. Very large farms grow crops,
such as coffee, to export to other countries. Export farming uses so much land that South America must
import food. To import means to buy from another country.
South Americans and Their Neighbors to the North:

Mexico and Central America
&
South America


Descended from Native Americans,
Africans, or Europeans
Colonized mainly by Spain
Most people speak Spanish and are
Catholic
South America’s people have much in common with their neighbors to the north.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. List the countries in each cultural region of South America.
2. Why do most people in South America speak Spanish and belong to the Roman Catholic Church?
Chapter 12: Mexico and Central America: Exploring the Region Today
Section 1: Mexico: Urban Migration
Many Mexicans are migrant farm workers. They do not own land but work on large farms owned by rich
landowners and travel from one area to another, picking crops that are in season. There is not enough
farm work for all the migrant workers, so many move to cities to look for jobs.
Campesino families who come to the city often become squatters, which means that they settle on
someone else’s land without permission. Small neighborhoods of very wealthy people are tucked away
from the rest of the city. But most of the residents are not wealthy.
Large cities offer many ways to make a living; for example, in factories, offices, and restaurants. The
cities in Mexico have grown so large and so quickly that they face problems, such as pollution and heavy
traffic, found in cities throughout the world.
Mexico City’s geographic location causes pollution to be trapped close to it. The city spreads across a
bowl-shaped valley, and the mountains surrounding the valley stop winds from carrying away factory
smoke, automobile exhaust fumes, and other pollution.
Urban Migration—Advantages and Disadvantages:
ADVANTAGES
Campesinos can find jobs
Cities have more schools
DISADVANTAGES
Housing is expensive
Cities are crowded and polluted
The lives of campesinos are completely different when they move to the city.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Give one reason why Mexico’s cities have grown so large and so quickly.
2. How could the lives of campesino children improve with urban migration?
Section 2: Guatemala and Nicaragua: Economic and Political Change
The Quiche Maya are the largest of 23 ethnic groups in Guatemala. They are struggling for land. Most
land in Guatemala belongs to a few rich landowners called ladinos, mestizos who are descended from
Native Americans and Spaniards.
Some Mayas have started political movements, large groups of people who work together to defend
their rights or to change the leaders in power. Mayas also help organize meetings, protests, and strikes,
or work stoppages. Above all, they are determined to defend Native American land rights.
People in Nicaragua have also struggled with injustice, mostly as a result of dictators. A dictator is a ruler
who has complete power. From the 1970s to the late 1980s, violent political warfare between two
political guerrilla groups—the Sandinistas and the Contras—plunged Nicaragua into deep economic and
social trouble.
A guerrilla is a person who takes part in undeclared warfare as a member of an independent group. In
1999, both the Sandinistas and Contras were disbanded, yet the differences between them remain.
Today, Nicaragua is one of the poorest nations in Latin America.
The People of Guatemala:
ETHNIC MAKEUP
Amerindian – 60%
Mestizo – 30%
Other – 10%
AGE STRUCTURE (IN YEARS)
15-64 – 52%
Under 15 – 45%
65 and over – 3%
Guatemala has the largest population among Central American countries.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. How have people struggled against injustice in Guatemala and Nicaragua?
2. How old are most people in Guatemala? Are there more mestizos or Amerindians?
Section 3: Panama: A Transportation Corridor
Since the 1500s, sailors dreamed of a transportation corridor through Central America to shorten the
trip from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean. A transportation corridor is a passageway through which
people can travel by foot, vehicle, rail, ship, or airplane.
In 1881, when Panama was part of Colombia, Colombia gave a French company the rights to build a
canal. After a few years the company went bankrupt. In 1903, the United States gained the rights to
build the Canal. Builders struggled with many problems, including mudslides and tropical diseases. It
took eight years to build the waterway.
Until recently, the United States controlled not only the Panama Canal but also much of the surrounding
area. Panama gained full control of the Canal in 1999.
Ships enter the Panama Canal at sea level. Because parts of the Canal go through mountains, the ships
need to be raised and lowered several times. A lock is a section of waterway in which a ship is raised and
lowered by adjusting the water level. Ships pass through two or more sets of locks as they sail through
the Panama Canal.
The Panama Canal—Before and After:
Shipping route
(New York to San Francisco)
Distance
BEFORE
Around the tip of
South America
13,000 miles (29,099 km)
The 40-mile Panama Canal reduces travel distance by more than half.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. What makes the Panama Canal an important transportation corridor?
2. How do you think the Panama Canal affected the cost of shipping goods?
AFTER
Through
Central America
5,200 miles (8,370 km)
Chapter 13: The Caribbean and South America: Exploring the Region Today
Section 1: The Caribbean: Economic and Political Challenges
Agriculture is the chief economic activity on the Caribbean islands, and more than half of the working
population works in this industry. Sugar cane, grown for export on large plantations, is the leading crop.
It accounts for three-quarters of Cuba’s agricultural exports.
It is risky to rely on a one-crop economy, in which only one crop provides a majority of a country’s
income. A single crop can be destroyed by disease or ruined by a natural disaster, such as a hurricane.
Recognizing the risks of a one-crop economy, many Caribbean nations have begun to vary the crops that
they raise.
The Caribbean countries fall into two major political groups—those that are independent and those that
remain dependent on other countries. Countries that are dependent on others usually manage their
own affairs but receive economic and military aid from their ruling powers.
For example, Puerto Rico is a commonwealth of the United States. It has its own government but also
has strong ties to the United States. Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens, but they cannot vote in U.S.
Presidential elections. They do not pay U.S. taxes and they have only a non-voting representative in the
U.S. Congress.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Why have many Caribbean nations begun to vary the crops that they raise?
Section 2: Brazil: Natural Resources and Industry
How land is used and what happens to resources that the land provides greatly affect the economy of
Brazil. Brazil’s rainforests take up about half of the country. People cut timber, mine for gold, and farm
in the rainforests. The Brazilian government gave rainforest land to landless peasants and poor farmers
known as campesinos. After a few years, however, the soil became unfit for farming.
Light barely penetrates deep in the rainforest. At the top of the trees, the leaves form a dense mass
called a canopy. More species of plants and animals live in and under the rainforest canopy than in any
other place on the Earth.
Scientists also estimate than rainforests produce about one third of the world’s oxygen. In a process
called photosynthesis, green plants produce their own food using water and carbon dioxide. Green
plants give off oxygen in photosynthesis.
Brazil’s leaders face the challenge of using rainforest resources to help the economy without upsetting
the natural balance. When part of the forest is destroyed, animals and plants that live there may not
survive. Fewer plants produce less oxygen.
Brazil’s Economic Development:
1800s:
Early 1900s:
Brazil becomes world’s
Coffee prices fall.
largest coffee grower.
1930s:
Government
discourages coffee
production; tries to
diversify economy by
building factories.
Today:
Factories produce iron
and steel, cars,
electrical equipment,
and other goods.
Many Brazilians have left farms and plantations to get jobs in factories.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Why are rainforests important not only to Brazil but also to the world?
2. Why do you think the government of Brazil tried to diversify the economy in the 1930s?
Section 3: Chile and Venezuela: Growing Economies
Both Venezuela and Chile have experienced an economic boom, or period of increased prosperity,
associated with growing economies. Venezuela’s boom was in oil, and Chile’s was in copper. When the
price for these resources fell in the 1980s, Venezuela and Chile had to find other ways to make money.
The Venezuelan government’s solution was a new policy of privatization. Privatization occurs when a
government sells its industries to individuals or private companies. Millions of people were employed by
the Venezuelan government when the price of oil fell in the mid-1980s.
The government hoped that privately owned businesses would make big profits. Venezuela also started
new industries to make its economy less dependent on oil.
Long after the boom, Chile still exports more copper than any other country in the world. The Atacama
Desert is dotted with copper mines. Chileans’ lifestyles vary from region to region. In the far south,
people raise sheep. Further north, in the central valley, farmers grow many vegetables and fruits.
A Challenge of Industrial Development:
CAUSE
Chilean government leaders relax pollution laws in
the early 1980s to help the economy by encourage
private industry.



EFFECTS
The standard of living rises.
People migrate to cities to get jobs in the
new industries.
Pollution levels rise.
In the 1990s, Chile’s government took action to reduce pollution. On days when the wind does not blow,
industries are shut down, and only a limited number of cars may enter the city.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. What resources gave rise to booms in the growing economies of Venezuela and Chile?
2. Name one environmental cost and one economic benefit of the Chilean government’s relaxing
pollution laws in the early 1980s.
Section 4: Argentina: A Cultural Center
Two distinct groups settled Argentina. One group, which crossed the Andes from Peru, settled in the
fertile interior and central Pampas, a vast flat area. They were mostly mestizos. Others in this group
were people of mixed European and African ancestry. A second, much larger group settled in and
around Buenos Aires. They were Europeans who came to the port city for trade.
The portenos as they are sometimes called, wanted to make Buenos Aires a city much like those in
Europe. And they did. Today Buenos Aires, Argentina’s capital, is a cosmopolitan city—a city of people
from many parts of the world.
In the mid 1800s, nomadic cowboys called gauchos established in the Pampas a culture found only in
Argentina. They hunted wild horses and cattle using lassos, knives, and bolas, a set of leather cords and
three iron balls or stones that they threw at the legs of animals to capture them.
By the late 1800s, most of the Pampas was fenced in as part of the huge estancias, or privately owned
estates. The free-spirited gauchos then became hired farmlands.
Argentina’s Geographic Diversity:
REGION
LOCATION
Grand Chaco
North
Pampas
Central, stretching from the East
Coast to increasingly dry land
toward the west
Patagonia
South of the Pampas
Andes
West
CHARACTERISTICS
Heavily forested, low, wet, hot
Flat, fertile, temperate
Arid windspread plateau with
some grassy valleys
Mountains
Argentina spreads across almost the entire southern half of South America, and it is the eighth largest
country in the world.
Classroom Discussion Questions: (DO NOT COPY)
1. Describe the two distinct social groups that settled present-day Argentina. Where each group settled?
2. Nearly 98% of Argentina’s population lives in the Pampas. Why do you suppose that is?