Theories of Practice:
The Human Resources Frame
MPA 8002
The Structure and Theory of Human
Organization
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
People are the heart of any organization. When
people feel the organization is responsive to their
needs and supportive of their goals, managers and
leaders can count on their followers’ commitment
and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are
authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate
effectively, or who simply don’t care about their
people can never be effective managers and leaders.
The human resource manager and leader works on
behalf of both the organization and its people,
seeking to serve the best interests of both.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and
empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people
know that they are important and that managers and leaders are
concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’
aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and
openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their
followers through participation and openness as well as by
making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they
need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders
emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify
issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others
when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness
and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
the human resources frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Family
 Tribe
 Clan
Central
Concepts:





Relationships
Self-Interest
Needs
Feelings
Skills




Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
Fundamental
Challenge:
Empowerment
Liberation
Fulfillment
SelfActualization
 Attune
organizational
and human
needs
If the principles of scientific
management were considered
“revolutionary,” the assertions of the
early human resources theorists
were “radical”...
…as their hypotheses challenged the
antecedents and theories of practice
governing how managers viewed
workers for the new Industrial era.
One of the earliest precursors of
human resources theory...
David Owen
18th century mercantilist
 owned spinning mills throughout
Scotland
 believed that worker productivity
could be improved by being attentive
to their basic human needs


provided workers a high standard of
living, including:
decent, clean housing
life-long educational opportunities
• preschool
• day care
• progressive elementary
and secondary schooling
• continuing adult education

in contrast to prevailing practice,
Owen trained his managers in
humane disciplinary practices...
...endeavored to make workers “origins”
rather than “pawns” of the organization
(de Charms, 1968)
Contrasting “pawns” and “origins”...
how managers and
leaders view “pawns”:
how managers and
leaders view “origins”:

passive “workers”


basically incompetent
and lazy


require training

need close supervision
active “resources”
competent and basically
self-motivated
 bring skills, attitudes,
energy, enthusiasm,
and commitment

are self-regulating
how “pawns”
experience work:



“replaceable cogs” in a
machine
victims of incompetent
bosses, bureaucratic
inertia, and organizational
doublespeak
alienating, dehumanizing,
and frustrating
how “origins”
experience work:



invigorating opportunities
to make a personal
contribution
a place to experience a
sense of belonging, to
build self-esteem, and to
become self-actualized
a place for personal and
professional growth and
challenge by asserting
oneself and advocating
one’s needs
The issue raised by the human
resources theories of practice is
that of better aligning people and
organizations not people or
organizations...
because...
people need organizations
…for the extrinsic rewards work provides
…for the intrinsic satisfaction work can provide
organizations need people
…for a reliable and stable labor pool
…for the energy, effort, and talent people bring
The assumptions of human
resources theories...
1. organizations exist to serve human needs
2. organizations and people need each other
salaries
opportunities
careers
ideas
energy
talent
3. the fit of people and organization is critical
an inappropriate fit can lead to
exploitation or victimization by people
and/or the organization
The rise of industrial/organizational
psychology in the 20th century,
especially human needs theories,
provided a theoretical focus to
consider the fit of people and
organization...
Abraham Maslow (1954)...

defined the hierarchy of pre-potent needs
5
4
3
5. self-actualization
4. self-esteem
3. belongingness
2
2. safety, security
1
1. physiological
Chris Argyris (1957)...

asserted that the worker-structure conflict
is built into the traditional principles of
organizational design and management
task specialization defines jobs as narrowly as
possible to improve efficiency…
...but the outcome is that work is
depersonalized and becomes monotonous
evidence of worker-structure conflict:
1. personal withdrawal—evident in absenteeism and
quitting
2. psychological withdrawal—evident in indifference
passivity, and apathy
3. resistance—evident in soldiering, deception,
feather bedding, and sabotage
4. power grabs—climbing the bureaucracy
5. forming coalitions (e.g., unions) to redress power
imbalances
6. socializing children with negative view of work
(i.e., unrewarding, little hope for advancement)
Frederick Herzberg (1959)...
formulated a two factor theory of the
motivation to work:
M
2F
A
E
motivation is a psychological complex of
two factors manifesting themselves in
attitudes evident in their effects
hygiene factors
2F
2 FACTORS
motivators
these factors are the objective
elements and subjective feelings
(i.e., needs or drives activated by
the events themselves) antecedent
to an attitude
hygiene factors
extrinsic

do not motivate but the absence of
hygiene increases worker dissatisfaction

when hygiene is not met, workers strike or
give up motivation and become addicted
to hygiene
Good organizational hygiene provides the
foundation for higher motivation in the
workplace...
hygiene factors
motivators

intrinsic
experiences enabling personal growth and
self-actualization in the work itself
achievement
responsibility
the work itself
advancement
doing complete jobs,
experiencing success
engaging in work design
and accountability
doing the job
engaging in new learnings,
developing expertise
...motivators build on hygiene factors...
motivators
hygiene factors
To inculcate higher motivation in workers,
managers and leaders should focus on:
using the organizing and planning
functions to encourage high morale
 attending to the workers’ attitudes
not the work process

While attending to worker morale and
attitudes, managers and leaders recognize:

that workplace hygiene is primary providing
the foundation for motivation
 that motivation to work is a psychological
process not a matter of a worker’s interest in
the job
 that salary is a hygiene factor not a motivator
According to Herzberg’s two-factor theory of
motivation, the worst of all motivators is…
…an across-the-board salary increase
Douglas McGregor (1960)...
posited a theory of management,
Theory X and Theory Y
…asserting that a manager’s assumptions
about people become self-fulfilling
prophecies evident in organizational
behavior

Theory X...people are inherently:
lazy
passive
possess little ambition
prefer to be led
resist change

Theory X...workers are
characterized by:
…an external locus-of-control
…“other-centered” directedness

Theory X...management through:
coercion
tight controls
threats
punishments

Theory X...self-fulfilling prophecies:
coercion
low productivity
tight controls
antagonism
threats
militant unions
punishments
subtle sabotage

Theory Y... people are inherently:
motivated
active and interested
ambitious
prefer to lead
interested in change

Theory Y... workers are
characterized by:
…an internal locus-of-control
…self-direction

Theory Y... management through:
open systems
communication
self-managing teams
peer-controlled pay systems

Theory Y... management through:
open systems
needs and tasks aligned
communication
accurate feedback
self-managing teams
worker investment
peer-controlled pay systems
fairness and equity

the essential task of managers and
leaders is to arrange organizational
conditions…
…so that people can achieve their own
goals best by directing their efforts
toward organizational rewards
While industrial/organizational psychology
provided a theoretical focus to consider
the fit of people and organization...
…the goal of making the workplace and
productivity a forum for people to
express their freedom and dignity, as
noble as this goal may be, has never
been empirically proven.
Argyris & Schön (1974, 1996)...
juxtaposed two theories of practice,
Model I and Model II
Model I…what managers and leaders say
conflicts with what they do
Model II…through organizational learning, there
is congruence between what
managers and leaders say and do
Model I assumptions...
organizations are competitive,
dangerous places
 watch out for yourself or someone
else will do you in

Model I theory-in-use...
core
values
action
strategy
outcomes:
behavior
outcomes:
learning
identify
and
achieve
goals
design and
manage the
environment
unilaterally
defensive,
inconsistent,
fearful, and
selfish
appearance
no learning:
self-sealing,
protection
from
negative
feedback
core
values
action
strategy
outcomes:
behavior
outcomes:
learning
maximize
winning,
minimize
losing
own and
control what
is relevant to
one’s
interests
engenders
defensive,
inconsistent,
fearful, and
selfish
behaviors in
others
“single-loop”
learning:
core values
and
assumptions
remain
unquestioned
core
values
action
strategy
outcomes:
behavioral
outcomes:
learning
minimize
the
expression
of negative
feelings
insulate
oneself from
criticism,
discomfort,
and
vulnerability
reinforces
defensive
norms:
mistrust, risk
avoidance,
conformity,
and rivalry
core values
and
assumptions
are tested
privately
core
values
action
strategy
outcomes:
behavior
outcomes:
learning
be rational
insulate
others from
being hurt
critical
organizational
issues are not
discussed
collusion that
impedes
organizational
learning
The Model I problem-solving
process...
1. assume that others are causing the
problem
2. develop a private, unilateral
diagnosis and solution to the
problem
3. get other(s) to change by...
…calmly using facts, logic, and
rational persuasion to assert the
merits of your point of view
…using indirect coercive influences
…formulating and issuing direct
critiques
4. defensiveness confirms the original
diagnosis
5. intensify pressures by offering to
protect or to reject the other
person(s)
6. if unsuccessful, bear no responsibility
because the outcome is the other
person(s) fault
Model I outcomes...
Managers and leaders using a Model I
theory of practice increase in workers...
feelings of vulnerability
self-protecting behaviors
games of camouflage
deception
…and increase the probability of...
organizational
catastrophe
Model II problem-solving
process...
1. emphasize common goals and
mutual influence
LEADERS AND MANAGERS DO NOT FORGET:
M
A
D
Mutually Assured Destruction
produces no winners
2. communicate openly and publicly,
testing one’s assumptions and
beliefs
Does what I espouse...
…what I do?
3. combine inquiry with advocacy
inquiry
what others think, know,
want, and feel
advocacy
what I think, know, want,
and feel
Human resources theory requires that
managers and leaders possess...
sufficiently good interpersonal skills:

a fundamental competence in relating with
diverse individuals effectively

the refined ability to inquire in a non-threatening
way:



What is going on here?
Why are people behaving as they are?
What can I do about it?
sufficiently good intrapersonal skills:

is not afraid of conflict
 is able to confront conflict

in arguments, is able to distance oneself from the
passion of the moment and to construct how
other individuals are making sense of things
 “complicates” (rather than simplifies) one’s
understanding of how the organization really
works
sufficiently good group skills:

negotiates the fit between the individual and the
organization
 is comfortable with plurality, diversity, and
ambiguity
 directs conflict towards productive ends
 while solving problems, resolves organizational
issues
while groups can promote...
…groups can also generate
increased knowledge
a diversity of perspectives
time and energy
improved communication
caving into social pressure
inefficiency
increased acceptance
of decisions
personal agendas which
dominate the decision
making process
unproductive constraints

to increase group productivity
managers and leaders must be able
to address:
other’s personal interests
the requirements of various task roles
the requirements of various personal roles
informal group norms
interpersonal conflict
Basic human resources
strategies...
1. develop a long-term
organizational commitment to the
philosophy of human resources
• build human resources in to the
corporate and incentive
structures
• develop quantitative and
qualitative measures of human
resources management
2. invest in people
• hire the right people and
reward them well
• provide job security
• promote from within
• train and educate
• share the wealth of success
3. deal directly with people
• engage in active listening
• provide accurate feedback
• search for common interests
• experiment with ideas and
proposals
• doubt one’s infallibility
• treat differences as a group
responsibility
4. empower people through work
redesign
• provide greater autonomy and
participative management
• focus on job enrichment
• emphasize teamwork
• ensure egalitarianism
• provide opportunities for
upward hierarchical influence

Because change causes people to
feel incompetent, needy, and
powerless, providing for the
development of new skills, creating
opportunities for involvement, and
providing psychological support are
essential managerial/leadership
tasks.
Using human resources theory...
effective managers and leaders are
…catalysts
…servants
…support
whose primary concerns are
…empowerment
Human resources tasks for
managers and leaders...
1. help individuals and group
develop a shared sense of
direction and purpose
2. balance task and process goals
3. endeavor to make group work
both satisfying and efficient
4. keep on top of a large, complex
set of activities
5. get support from bosses
6. get support from corporate staff
and other constituents
7. motivate, coordinate, and control
large, diverse group of subordinates
Abusing human resources
theory...
ineffective managers and leaders are
whose primary concerns are
…wimps
…pushovers
…making people
happy
…managing by
abdication
Strengths of the human resources
theory of practice...
…personal
…practical
…addresses fundamental human
needs and interests
Limitations of the human
resources theory of practice...
…naïve
…optimistic
…not realistic in a fast-changing
environment
Integrating reflective practice, conceptual
pluralism, and organizational analysis...
Analyzing organizations through four
frames inculcates the conceptual
pluralism needed to diagnose the issues
underlying the problems manifesting
themselves in human organizations.
the structural frame
the political frame
the human resources frame
the symbolic frame
This module has focused on...
the human resources theories that
managers and leaders can utilize in
practice episodes
as these theories of practice provide
managers a frame of reference to inform
decision making, the
the human resources frame
offers managers and leaders guidance
about the strengths and limits of human
resources theory
A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
People are the heart of any organization. When
people feel the organization is responsive to their
needs and supportive of their goals, managers and
leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and
loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian
or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or
who simply don’t care about their people can never be
effective managers and leaders. The human resource
manager and leader works on behalf of both the
organization and its people, seeking to serve the best
interests of both.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO
The job of the manager and leader is one of support and
empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people
know that they are important and that managers and leaders are
concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’
aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and
openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their
followers through participation and openness as well as by
making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they
need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders
emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify
issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others
when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness
and caring.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359)
the human resources frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Family
 Tribe
 Clan
Central
Concepts:





Relationships
Self-Interest
Needs
Feelings
Skills




Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
Fundamental
Challenge:
Empowerment
Liberation
Fulfillment
SelfActualization
 Attune
organizational
and human
needs
The next module will focus on...
the political frame
and the political science theories that
managers and leaders can utilize in
practice episodes
A POLITICAL SCENARIO
Managers and leaders have to recognize
political reality and know how to deal
with it. Inside and outside any
organization, there are always a variety of
different interest groups, each with its own
agenda. There are not enough resources to
give everyone what he or she wants, and
there is always going to be conflict.
MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP
IN A POLITICAL SCENARIO
The job of managers and leaders is to recognize the major
constituencies, to develop ties to their leadership, and to manage
conflict as productively as possible. Above all, they need to build
power bases and use power carefully. They cannot give every
group everything it wants, although they can try to create arenas
for negotiating differences and coming up with reasonable
compromises. Managers and leaders also have to work hard at
articulating what everyone in their organizations possesses in
common. Managers and leaders must tell the people that it is a
waste of time to fight each other when there are plenty of enemies
outside that they can all fight together. Groups that fail to work
well together internally tend to get trounced by outsiders who
have their own agendas.
Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 361)
the political frame
Primary
Metaphor for
Organization:
 Jungle
Central
Concepts:






Self-Interest
Power
Conflicts
Competition
Politics
Intrigue
Managerial
And
Leadership
Image:
 Advocate
 Referee
 Mediator
Fundamental
Challenge:
 Develop
agenda
 Form
coalitions and
build power
base
 Acquire good
intelligence
 Dispense
information
wisely
References





Argyris, C. (1960). Individual actualization in complex
organizations. Mental Hygiene, 44(2), 226-37.
Argyris, C. (1986, Sept.-Oct.). Double loop learning in
organizations, Harvard Business Review, 64(5), 74-79.
Argyris, C. (1977, Sept-Oct). Skilled incompetence.
Harvard Business Review, 55(5), 115-25.
Argyris, C. (1991). Teaching smart people how to learn.
Harvard Business Review, 69(3), 99-109.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1974). Theory in Practice:
Increasing Professional Effectiveness. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.





Barnard, C. I. (1938/1968). The functions of the
executive. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing
organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2nd edition).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
DeCharms, P. (1968). Personal causation. New York:
Academic Press.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance.
Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B.
(1959/1993). The motivation to work. New Brunswick,
NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation.
Psychological Review, 50, 370-396.
 McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of organization.
New York: McGraw Hill.
 Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in
educational administration. Journal of Educational
Administration, 27(2), p. 186.
 Weick, K. E. (1995). Sensemaking in organizations.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.