COMM 5402 Advanced Interpersonal Communication Spring 2004 Human Need for Explanation Need for theory in human mind 3 ways of experience the world observer theorist (observer & explanation) researcher (theorist & test) Defining Theory I Theory differs from informal everyday knowledge by being more explicit, formally organized, and abstract. (McGuire, 1989). Defining Theory II A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting phenomena. (Kerlinger, 1986). Theoretical Models Units (Variables) Laws of Interaction Boundaries System States Propositions Operationalizations Hypotheses Questions What about Truth? Does research lead to truth? What exactly is the difference between adequacy and validity of a theory? Why is a preferred theory determined by consensus and not by validity? Ideas to keep in mind 1) No a priori limits on what theory is about 2) A theoretical model has to be complete 3) Adequacy = internal logic 4) Validity is determined through research 5) Only testing makes a theory scientific Preferred Theory Is a matter of consensus - consensus about boundaries & scope - consensus about the internal logic - consensus about empirical evidence Standards of a Scientific Theory Explanation Prediction Parsimony Falsefiability Utility Description vs. Research Descriptions answers questions for the answer’s sake Research tests predictions to validate a theoretical model Two Goals of Science Prediction focus on outcomes focus on variable values focus on stability & transition of system states Understanding focus on understanding of causal relationships among units Two Paradoxes Precision: prediction without understanding Power: understanding without prediction Assignment In your group, think of an example for the precision paradox and an example for the power paradox. Using your examples, determine whether they really are paradoxes, and try to resolve them (i.e., explain how they are possible) Explaining the Paradoxes Precision: deterministic relationships among units lead to stable associations between them that can be observed Power: theoretical models highlight significant relationships between units w/o accounting for ALL causal factors or their interactions Units defined: Units are mental conceptualizations that represent the parts of a theoretical model that interact with one another in specific ways. Theoretical Models Unit Unit + Unit = Laws of Interaction - = Boundary Properties of Units Units are things or properties of things Units are plural, at least in principle Units can be attributes or variables, i.e., are categorical or continuous Units can be real or nominal, i.e., represent actual or hypothetical constructs Units can be sophisticated or primitive, i.e., are defined or undefined Exercise: Determined the properties of these units Relational intimacy in a couple A person’s religious belief A group’s ethnicity Family communication patterns A person’s height Homework Assignment Think of a phenomenon in interpersonal communication that is in need of a theoretical explanation (i.e., a topic for your term paper). Write a one paragraph research proposal answering the what & why questions. Due Wednesday! Laws of Interaction: link units of a theory do NOT imply causality may be categorical may be sequential may be determinant Types of Interaction: linear curvilinear recursive Efficiencies of Laws High Efficiency Low Efficiency rate of change covariance directionality presenceabsence Conditions for Causality Covariance Temporal Precedence Exclusion of Alternatives Conditions for Causality Covariance Temporal Precedence Exclusion of Alternatives Propositions A truth statement in regard to the theoretical model NOT in regard to reality (i.e., no need for empirical truth) Must follow accepted rules of logic A statement about the relationship among units NOT a statement about unit or set membership. Propositions & Laws equivalent to a law of interaction more limited then a law of interaction combining two or more laws of interaction Empirical Indicators Operationalization of a theoretical construct Good Indicators are reliable and valid Reliability: consistency of measure Validity: measuring the right thing. Reliability and Validity Validity low low Reliability high high Types of Validity in Social Science Face Validity Content Validity Is the entire concept represented? Criterion Validity Does it make sense? Does it correlate with other known measures? Construct Validity Does it behave like the construct outside the model? Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a prediction about the values of units of a theory (where empirical indicators are employed for the units in each proposition) that allow researchers to assess the validity of the theoretical model. Three condition of a good test of a scientific theory A) deducible B) improbable from the theoretical model unless theoretical model is “true” C) verifiable (testable) Factors: Quality of hypotheses Validity of indicators Completeness of theoretical model Hypotheses Testing and Theory Development Extensive Tests: test all strategic hypotheses Intensive Tests: test only key hypotheses Inductive Tests: build theory from empirical data Defining Interpersonal Communication Interpersonal Communication is any interaction between two or more persons who: * exchange information, * create meaning, * exert influence, or * establish social reality Intimacy A widely used concept in study of relationships A variable property of a relationship, including (among others): Closeness & Interdependence Self-Disclosure Warmth & Affection Importance of Intimacy Associated with relational development Associated with relationship quality & satisfaction Associated with personal health & well being (psychological & physical) Assignment Define Intimacy. In 1-2 paragraphs, write a definition of intimacy that captures the concept of intimacy how you would define it for yourself. Four Approaches to Intimacy Life Span Development Motivational Individual need/ability for intimacy Equilibrium Develop identity develop intimacy Dialectic between independence and intimacy Equity Intimacy as fairness and equality Intimacy in Romantic Dyads Three Core Dimensions: Intimacy Love Commitment Conceptually distinct, but dependent on one another Love Styles (Lee, 1973) Primary Styles Eros: passionate, intense, powerful Ludus: playful, non-committal, flirtatious Storge: comfortable, stable, gradual Secondary Styles Pragma: practical, rational, pragmatic Mania: manic, obsessive, extreme Agape: altruistic, devoted, content Interdependence of Intimacy, Love, & Commitment Commitment LOVE Intimacy Validity of the MSIS Face Validity? Do items seem to capture the concept? Content Validity? Do items cover entire breadths of concept? Dimensions of the MSIS Self-Disclosure (2,4,10) Affection (3,12, 16) Satisfaction (11, 14, 17) Time spend together (1, 7) Understanding (5, 13) Feeling Close (6, 9) Being Supportive (8, 15) MSIS Population Means Satisfied Couples Married Males = 153 Females = 156 Unmarried Males = 135 Females = 139 Dissatisfied Couples Married Males = 125 Females = 134 Social Penetration Theory Relationship Growth = More Intimacy Intimacy results from Self-Disclosure Increase Depths of Knowledge of Other Increase Breadth of Knowledge of Other Motivation for Self-Disclosure is expected outcome (rewards-costs) Self-Disclosure and Intimacy Intimate Relationship Non-Intimate Relationship Four Stages of Exchange 1) orientation 2) exploratory affective exchange 3) affective exchange 4) stable exchange Social Exchange Theory (Thibaut & Kelly) Terms O = Perceived Outcome CL = Comparison Level (Expectation) CLalt = CL of Alternatives (Expectations for alternative relationship) Predictions Satisfaction: compare O and CL Stability: compare O and CLalt Relationship Outcomes predicted by Social Exchange Theory O > CL satisfied unstable O < CL dissatisfied unstable O > CLalt satisfied stable dissatisfied stable Stability Satisfaction O < CLalt Five Aspects of Exchange 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Reward & Cost: Difference or Ratio? Absolute Rewards and Costs Immediate Rewards and Costs Forecast Rewards and Costs Cumulative Rewards and Costs Exchange: Profit vs. Equity Motivation Profit = an individual’s rewards/cost ratio Equity = each person’s rewards/costs ratio is about equal Exchange: Profit vs. Equity Motivation Profit = an individual’s rewards/cost ratio Equity = each person’s rewards/costs ratio is about equal Questions: Is self-disclosure motivated by desire for profit or equity? Does it make a difference? Dyadic Effect Dyadic Effect: Observation that selfdisclosure by one person is usually reciprocated by the other. Explanations: Norm of Reciprocity Attributions Attributions for Self-Disclosure Content (cause for SD) Self Other Relationship (situation?) Valence: Positive Neutral Negative Attributions and Reciprocation Attribution Positive Neutral Negative Self + SD +/- SD - SD Other + SD +/- SD - SD Relationship + SD +/- SD - SD Factors Affecting Attributions Timing of Self-Disclosure Social Rules & Norms Relationship History Salient Situational Factors Content of Self-Disclosure A Model of Reciprocity in Self-Disclosure Attributions SelfDisclosure Interest in Relationship Capacity to Self-Disclosure SelfDisclosure Marriage as Social Transition A social transition affects groups of people rather than individuals Motives for social transitions are both psychological and social The three phases of the marriage as social transition are: precommitment, postcommitment, & event Conditions for Commitment On Average, greater pros than cons (i.e., greater rewards than costs) Small variability (consistency) of positive outcomes Causes for Commitment Changes 1. Intrapersonal/Normative Standards, beliefs, ideals, rules, norms 2. Dyadic Agreement, conflict, interdependence, behavior 3. Social Network Reactions from family& friends 4. Circumstantial External events, job-related, etc. Typical Effects of Specific Causes 1. Intrapersonal/Normative (7%) moderate & rapid decrease 2. Dyadic (64%) affects all changes, but is generally positive 3. Social Network (20%) moderate & rapid decrease 4. Circumstantial (10%) moderate decrease Modeling Marital Intention Dyadic factors Intrapersonal factors Decision to Marry Network factors Circumstantial factors Modeling Marital Intention Intrapersonal factors Intimacy Needs Dyadic factors SelfDisclosure Decision to Marry Circumstantial factors Network factors Modeling Marital Intention Dyadic factors SelfDisclosure MSIS Intrapersonal factors Intimacy Needs Decision to Marry Network factors Circumstantial factors Components of Social Exchange 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) equivalence of type of resources immediacy of exchange of resources equivalence of value of resources contingency of exchange range of resources available for exchange transferability of obligation to exchange obligation to initiate exchange imbalance of exchange Exchange Rules and Intimacy 1) 2) 3) 4) exchange becomes more heteromorphic as intimacy increases amount of time before return is needed increases as intimacy increases need to return resource of equivalent value decreases as intimacy increases exchange becomes less contingent as intimacy increases Exchange Rules and Intimacy 5) 6) 7) 8) range of resources that are exchanged increases as intimacy increases obligation to exchange resources is more transferable to another person as intimacy increases degree to which persons feel obligated to initiate in exchange increases as intimacy increases degree of acceptable unilateral indebtedness increases as intimacy increases Axioms of Social Exchange Theory Social Exchange is one important factor in all human relationships Social Exchange is determined by the Norm of Reciprocity Norm of Reciprocity varies according to Intimacy Social Exchange varies along specific dimensions (components) Limitations of Social Exchange Theory: The definitions of exchange rules are clear only for low intimacy The definitions for exchange rules are unclear for high intimacy Important terms such as resource are undefined or defined too broadly The mechanism that is used to compute and remember balances is undefined Communal Relationships Based on concern for welfare of other Need is basis for transfer of resources Receipt of benefit does not create “debt” or obligation to “return favor” Characterized by “equality of affect” Vary in strength Vary in certainty Comparing Exchange & Communal Relationships Exchange Norm of Reciprocity Transfer initiated if other can reciprocate Relationship is means for instrumental goals Communal Norm of Mutual Responsiveness Transfer initiated if other in need Relationship is intrinsically rewarding Relationship Type and Attraction Communal Relationship Exchange Relationship returned favor decreases attraction request for returned favor decreases attraction request for favor increases attraction* returned favor increases attraction request for returned favor increases attraction request for favor decreases attraction Ergo: Attraction function of met expectations Features of Women’s Talk ask more questions engage in conversational maintinance verbal minimal responses silent protest more integrative language Features of Men’s Talk interrupt more more challenges & disputes ignore others control topic more declarations and opinions Cross-Gender Miscommunication Minimal Responses Questions request for info vs. keeping other talking Introducing Topics & Topic Shifts agreement vs. interest individual responsibility vs. cooperation Discussing Problems finding solutions vs. empathy Gender Differences in Relational Cognition Women think more frequently & complexly about their relationships Women habitually think & talk about relationship Men think & talk about relationship only during crisis Women’s well-being more tied to relationship perceptions than men’s Gender Differences in Self-Concept Women: Relational self-concept Identity based on friendship & popularity Femininity indicative of relational orientation Men: Separate self-concept Identity based on achievement & autonomy Masculinity based on separate orientation Linking Gender, Self-concept, and Communication Gender based Socialization Gender based Self-Concept Gender specific Behavior The Biological View Sexes are inherently different in some respects due to biological functions Men are stronger & more aggressive Women are more verbally fluent The Theory of Evolution Life evolves through the dual process of random mutation and selection, such that those changes that increase a gene’s (i.e., usually its carrier) reproductive success are passed on to future generations and spread through the gene pool, whereas changes that decrease a gene’s (i.e., usually its carrier) reproductive success are not passed on and disappear from the gene pool. Theory of Evolution (Darwin) Variation (random change of traits) Inheritance (passing on of traits to offspring) Selection (of advantageous traits) - Survival - Reproduction Inclusive Fitness (Hamilton) Evolution understood from the gene’s perspective(I.e., Selfish Gene) Essentially, genes evolve Solves “problem” of altruism Evolved Psychological Mechanisms solve specific recurring problems of survival or reproduction takes in limited information uses decision rules to obtain output output can be psychological, physiological, or behavioral Sex Differences due to Evolution i.e., sex-differences in behavior that are the result of different reproductive challenges for the sexes Parental Investment Parental Certainty Parental Investment Men = low investment (intercourse) Less selective with sex partners Attraction based on fertility Women = high investment (pregnancy) More selective with sex partners Attraction based on ability to provide and loyalty Parental Certainty Men = low certainty Sexual jealousy Les attachment to children Women = high certainty Emotional jealousy More attachment to children The Cultural View Two communication sub-cultures Males = rational, work-oriented, leaders, in public sphere (white male belief system) Females = emotional, relationshiporiented, followers, in private sphere (female belief system) The Power View Influence is central to relationships Males view of power = power over people Females view of power = power to accomplish The Rhetorical View Individuals make personal choices about: Goals Strategies Roles Males and Females differ in the choices the make (often due to situation) Comparing the 4 Views Biological MORE LESS Cultural Power Deterministic Potential for Change Rhetorical LESS MORE 4 Viewpoints on Gender Differences 1) Biology - differences due to evolution 2) Culture - two spheres with different belief systems 3) Power - different definitions and uses of power 4) Rhetoric - different choices made by men & women Relationship Satisfaction Conceptualizations/Operationalizations: Happiness with relationship/partner Psychological intimacy in relationship Sexual & physical intimacy Interdependence with partner (severity of loss) Adjustment to relationship/partner Commitment to relationship/partner Antecedents to Satisfaction Achieving Intimacy (psychological & physical) Becoming Interdependent & Adjusting to it Meeting or Exceeding Expectations (Comparison Level) Satisfaction and Communication Intimacy Communication Interdependence Adjustment Satisfaction NVC & Satisfaction Non-verbal accuracy is associated with greater marital satisfaction Married couples are much better at accurate NVC than stranger couples Women are more accurate encoders of nonverbal affect, especially positive affect using the visual channel NVC of Dissatisfied Partners More difficulty conveying positive affect More difficulty decoding neutral affect More difficulty predicting NVC success Less positive on neutral affect More use of negative affect The Relationship between NVC and Satisfaction Do better nonverbal communication skills lead to greater satisfaction? How so? Does greater satisfaction lead to better nonverbal communication? How so? Defining Understanding Three Levels of Understanding 1. Being able to predict other’s behavior 2. Being able to explain processes that lead to behavior (rational understanding) 3. Being able to experience other’s thoughts and feelings (empathetic understanding) The Role of Understanding? Communication Understanding Intimacy Interdependence Adjustment Satisfaction Marriage Types Traditionals: high interdependence, conventional ideology, engage conflict Independents: high interdependence, unconventional ideology, engage conflict Separates: low interdependence, conventional ideology, avoid conflict Marital Types and Verbal Communication Traditionals & Independents more fondness more pleasantness Separates less fondness less pleasantness Marital Satisfaction and Verbal Communication by Gender Husbands’ Satisfaction Wives’ responsiveness Wives’ use of we-ness Husbands’ fondness of wives Husbands’ use of we-ness Wives’ Satisfaction Wives’ fondness of husbands Wives use of we-ness Relational Maintenance Strategies Positivity Openness Assurances Network Sharing Tasks Predicting Relational Maintenance Strategy Use Gender Females use more Social Exchange Benefit-ratio predicts maintenance strategies Equity: curvilinear relationship Interdependence: linear relationship Benefits-Ratio and Maintenance Strategy Use Interdependence Strategy Use Equity Benefits Ratio Marriage Beliefs Marriages are determined by 3 underlying beliefs ideology interdependence conflict style (avoidance) Marriage Types Traditionals: high interdependence, conventional ideology, engage conflict Independents: high interdependence, unconventional ideology, engage conflict Separates: low interdependence, conventional ideology, avoid conflict Marriage Types and Conflict Traditionals = validators Independents=volatile validate each other, problem solvers emotional, expressive, like to fight Separates=avoiders usually don’t bother to complain Marital Types and Verbal Communication Traditionals & Independents more fondness more pleasantness Separates less fondness less pleasantness Marital Satisfaction and Verbal Communication by Gender Husbands’ Satisfaction Wives’ responsiveness Wives’ use of we-ness Husbands’ fondness of wives Husbands’ use of we-ness Wives’ Satisfaction Wives’ fondness of husbands Wives use of we-ness Attachment The Strong Bond between Infant & Primary Care Giver Innate (shared with many other animals) Necessary for Survival & Development Characterized by Multi-Stage Reaction to Separation Attachment (cont.) Necessary for Survival & Development Secure Base Function Save Haven Function Characterized by Multi-Stage Reaction to Separation: Protest Despair Detachment Rebound from Detachment Ainsworth’s Attachment Styles (determined by Strange Situation) 1. Secure - briefly upset, then happy & satisfied 2. Avoidant - no emotional response, then avoid mother 3. Anxious/Ambivalent - very upset, then initially avoidant PCG’s Behavior and Infant’s Attachment Style Reliably Available Secure Attachment Reliably Unavailable Avoidant Attachment Unreliably Available/Over Involved Anxious/Ambivalent Attachment Kobak’s Attachment Dimensions Secure Secure Dismissing Preoccupied Dismissing Avoidant Preoccupied Insecure Bartholomew’s Four Attachment Styles Model of Self + + Model Of Other _ _ Secure Preoccupied Dismissive Fearful Avoidant Comparing Infant and Adult Attachment Infant Complementary Parent or Other Adult Exploration System easily overwhelmed Adult Reciprocal Peer & Sexual Partner Separation has to be sever to elicit attachment like reaction A Model of Attachment Transmission Attachment Attachment Model Model Child Partner PCG Child Cognitive Representations of Attachment General Attachment Model Relationship Type Attachment Model Relationship Specific Attachment Model A Model of Attachment Transmission II Parental Attachment General Attachment Model Model Relationship Attachment Model Child PCG Child Partner Reinforcing Existing Attachment Models Independence of General Attachment Model (AM) from Relationship AM Selection of Partner with congruent AM Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Own Behavior elicits Response from Partner consistent with AM Relationship Experience reinforces AM Attachment, Communication & Satisfaction I Attachment Satisfaction Communication Attachment, Communication & Satisfaction II Attachment Satisfaction Communication Attachment and Nonverbal Communication Positive Model of Self Positive Model of Other Less Anxiety More Intimacy More Affiliation Fearful Avoidance Less Fluency Attachment and Nonverbal Communication Secures -more intimacy -more affiliation -less anxiety? -more fluency Preoccupieds -more intimacy -more affiliation -more anxiety? -more fluency Dismissives -less intimacy -less affiliation -less anxiety? -more fluency Fearful Avoidants -less intimacy -less affiliation -more anxiety? -less fluency Schemas Associative Networks of memory nodes Schemas’ Impact on Cognition (Information Processing) Bias how we perceive and interpret the world around us: what what what what we pay attention to we discount we memorize other info we access Synesthesia I Synesthesia II Important Schemas Self Attributes: personality, features, tendencies… Affect & Motivations: emotions, goals,… Personal History Others Like self, only less extensive Relationship Schemas Cognitive Representations of Relationships Associate Networks that contain declarative and procedural knowledge of self, the other, and the relationship between self & other. Knowledge includes: attributes, motives, emotions, relationship history, & interpersonal scripts Self, Other, & Relationship Schemas Self Relationship Other Models of Relationships General Type Self Rel. Other Self Rel. Other Specific Self Rel. Other Close Relationship Beliefs Intimacy External Factors Security, network, finances, similarity, kids Passion Trust, respect, communication, coping, support, acceptance, love, friendship, compromise Sex, vitality Individuality Independence, equity Model Congruency and Relationship Satisfaction Relationship satisfaction NOT correlated with belief strength Relationship satisfaction correlated with overlap between relationship type and relationship specific beliefs Conclusions About Relationship Models Relationship Type Models Relationship Specific Models well developed, based on socialization idealistic representations Well developed, based on experience realistic representations Both types play role in information processing Relationship Models and Information Processing Models are important for controlled processing Models are important for automatic processing Models guide behavior (directly & indirectly) Relational Model Theory Only four relational models are bases of all social behavior Models are generative Models are pervasive Models are universal Communal Sharing no distinction between self and other Need/ability based distribution of resources categorical system Authority Ranking hierarchical distinction between self and other status based distribution of resources ordinal system Equality Matching self and partner distinct, but on equal level socially even (i.e., in kind) distribution of resources interval system Market Pricing self and partner distinct but equal, although inequalities might result from behavior market based distribution of resources ratio system Asocial & Null Relationships Alternatives available if persons interact with others without perceiving a relationship Asocial = awareness and use of relational models for ends unrelated or antithetical to relationship Null = failure to perceive other as potential relationship partner Elementary Features of Relational Models 1) 2) 3) 4) Models are morally obligating Violations of models are sanctioned Actualization of models intrinsically enjoyable Models operate in disparate domains in diverse cultures 5) Models form an ordered set in terms of relations and operations that define structures 6) Models exist in more primitive mammalian and other animal life Predictions Regarding the Universality of Relational Models 1) Models emerge spontaneously regardless of culture (teaching) 2) Models are externalized (not internalized) 3) In novel situations, people use models to organize social life Predictions Regarding the Acquisition of Relational Models 1) Models are acquired in a predetermined sequence 2) Uses of newly acquired models are learned and fine tuned through experimentation 3) Much like language, acquisition of relational models independent of general intelligence The Role of Culture For any given relationship culture determines which relational model (or combination of models) applies to which specific relationship domain.