Development
of Self
CHAPTER 6
Global Self-Esteem

Self-esteem - The evaluative component of self
that taps how positively or negatively people
view themselves in relation to others

Children who have high self-esteem view themselves as
competent, capable, and are pleased with who they
are

Individuals with high self-esteem are happier than those
with low self-esteem

High self-esteem in childhood is linked to a variety of
positive adjustment outcomes including school success,
good relationships with parents and peers, and less
anxiety and depression

But, direction of effects is unclear
Domain-Specific Self-Esteem

Five Domains of Self Perceptions

Scholastic Ability

Athletic Competence

Physical Appearance

Behavioral Conduct

Social Acceptance
Global
SelfEsteem
Global Self-Esteem:
Group Differences
 Gender
 Ethnicity/culture
 Age
Elementary
School: 3.1 out of 4
Mean-Level Changes in Self-Esteem
Explain the changes!!
1. Age 15: Self-esteem decreases
2. Mid-20’s: Self-esteem increases
3. Age 65: Self-esteem decreases
High
SE
Low
SE
5
15
25
35
45
Age
55
65
75
Elementary
Global /Domain-Specific
Mean-Level Changes




Children completed self-report measures
Global self-esteem
Competency in 4 domains
Year
Grades
1
1st, 2nd, 4th
2
2nd, 3rd, 5th
3
3rd, 4th, 6th
6th to 7th Grade
Wave
Grades
1
Fall 6th grade
2
Spring 6th grade
3
Fall 7th grade
4
Spring 7th grade

Elementary School: Math, Reading, Instrumental Music, Sports

Transition from 6th to 7th Grade: Math, English, Social, Sports
Assessed changes in measures over time
(Wigfield & Eccles, 1994)
Domain-Specific
Mean-Level Changes:
Elementary School
High 7
But, global SE did not change over time.
6
5
Math
4
Reading
Music
Sports
3
2
Low
1
Year 1
Year 2
Year 3
(Wigfield & Eccles, 1994)
Domain-Specific Group
Differences: Elementary
Self-Reported Competency
High
Low
7
6
*
*
*
*
5
Girls
4
Boys
3
2
1
Math
Reading
Music
Sports
(Wigfield & Eccles, 1994)
Domain-Specific
Mean-Level Changes: 6th to 7th
Self-Reported Competency
High5.5
Global SE DID change over time.
5.25
Math
5
English
Sports
Social
4.75
Low 4.5
1
2
3
4
Wave
(Wigfield & Eccles, 1994)
Mean-Level Changes in SelfEsteem: 6th to 7th
Global Self-Esteem
High 15
14.5
14
13.5
Low 13
1
2
3
4
Wave
Fall 6th
Spring 6th
Fall 7th
Spring 7th
(Wigfield & Eccles, 1994)
Domain-Specific Group
Differences: 6th to 7th
Self-Reported Competency
High 7
6
*
*
*
n.s.
5
Girls
4
Boys
3
2
Low 1
Math
English
Sports
Social
(Wigfield & Eccles, 1994)
Bringing It Together


Global Self-Esteem

Does not change during elementary school

Does change from elementary to junior high school-Why?

Gender differences do not appear until 6th grade –Why?
Domain-Specific Self-esteem

Boys - ↑ math and sports

Girls – ↑ reading/English

Although SE changes, most children still report high SE

Even though domain-specific SE declines, global SE can
remain the same
Influences on Self-Esteem
 Family
 Peers
 Teachers
and Mentors
Should we increase selfesteem?


Problems with Increasing Global Self-Esteem

Fosters experimentation, including early sexual activity and
drinking

Related to narcissism, prejudice, and antisocial behavior
Strategies to increase self-esteem

Focus on domains in which children are successful,
interested, and those viewed as important

Provide contingent rewards
Identity Formation

Identity - The definition of oneself as a discrete,
separate entity

Erikson – identity vs. identify confusion

Identity Status Theory (James Marcia)
Identity Classification
Identity Achievement
Definition
Resolved identity issues by
making personal commitments
to a goal
Identity Foreclosure
Not engaged in identity
experimentation and established
vocational/ideological identity
based on choices/values of
others
Identity Moratorium
Experiencing an identity “crisis”
and actively asking questions
about life commitments and
seeking answers
Identity Diffusion
Not yet thought about or
resolved identity issues and not
making progress toward
commitments
HIGH
EXPLORATION
IDENTITY
MORATORIUM
LOW
COMMITMENT
IDENTITY
ACHIEVEMENT
17-19
20+
12-13
12-13
IDENTITY
DIFFUSION
HIGH
COMMITMENT
IDENTITY
FORECLOSURE
LOW
EXPLORATION
Identity Status Theory: Outcomes

Identity moratorium - anxious and intense, often
have strained or ambivalent relationships with their
parents and other authority figures; low in
authoritarianism; better adjusted than foreclosed or
diffused identity status

Identity diffusion - viewed as the least mature in
their identity development. Some are delinquents
and abuse drugs; others are lonely or depressed;
still others are angry and rebellious. Most last
intimate peer relationships.
Identity Status Theory: Outcomes

Identity achievement - associated with high selfesteem, cognitive flexibility, more mature moral
reasoning, clearer goal setting, and better goal
achievement

Identity foreclosure - more authoritarian and
inflexible and more susceptible to extreme
ideologies and movements, such as cults or radical
political movements
Influences on Identity Formation

Parental Style

Adolescent’s Behavior

Environment / Historical Context
NAME THAT IDENTITY!
Identity Classification
Definition
Identity Achievement
Resolved identity issues by making
personal commitments to a goal
Identity Foreclosure
Committed to an identity without
experiencing a “crisis” of deciding
what really suits them
Identity Moratorium
Experiencing an identity “crisis” and
actively asking questions about life
commitments and seeking answers
Identity Diffusion
Not yet thought about or resolved
identity issues and future direction