Church History:
Selected Places & Events
by Dr. George Luther
The Black Sea region, particularly Istanbul,
has played a significant role in religious history.
This presentation, excerpted from Dr. Luther’s studies of the evolution
of the Catholic Church, highlights several major religious
developments that have occurred
Journeys of St. Paul
One of the most important figures in early Christianity, Saint Paul made extensive
journeys as a Christian missionary throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Paul’s goal,
to reach peoples still untouched by the work of evangelists, proved to be a strenuous
and often difficult task. He survived three separate journeys during the A.D. 40s and
50s, bringing Christianity to Macedonia and Greece. During a fourth trip, however, the
Romans arrested Paul in Jerusalem and probably executed him in Rome in A.D. 62.
Entering Ephesus as St. Paul might have
Library at
Ephesus
Theater at Ephesus
seating capacity of
25,000 people
Population of 250,000
in Ephesus at the
time of St. Paul
Leaving Ephesus: Remnant of the
Temple to Artemis — one of the
seven wonders of the ancient world
Basilica of St. John
the Apostle at
Ephesus
Burial place of St. John
entrance
Constantine — from persecution to acceptance
Constantine created a favorable environment for Catholics after his
victory over Maxentius in 312. He had a vision of Christ before battle
and his soldiers used Christ’s monogram on their shields (chi and
rho). This led to the unification of church and state interests (which is
not always a good thing in history). The Catholic Church did not
really show tolerance of other religions until Vatican II in the 1960s.
Constantinople (originally named Byzantium from the Greeks)
became the seat of the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) and
Eastern Christendom from 320 to 1453. The Pope remained in Rome.
Constantinople was not overrun by barbarians (huns, etc. ) or other
groups as early Rome was. It was finally taken by the Turks (Islamic
faith) in 1453 and named Istanbul. This cut off the route to the East
and led to the European migration to the Americas where Catholicism
and Protestantism quickly spread.
Constantinople – Hagia Sophia (Church) built 532–537
Constantinople – Church of Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom)
Largest indoor structure
for 1,000 years.
Emperor Constantine and
wife pictured with Christ
Byzantine Empire
The Byzantine Empire evolved from the Roman Empire’s eastern territories after
the Roman Empire’s western regions fell in the 5th century. Initial harmony
between the church and state fortified the early empire (4th-6th centuries). Rome
could depend on some modest military support from Constantinople. The
Crusades taxed the territories during the 11th century, precipitating a decline.
Constantinople, the capital, fell in 1453 to the Ottoman Turks, who conquered the
last remnants of the Byzantine Empire a few years later.
Post Chalcedon and the Barbarian attacks - Europe
Constantinople eventually lost much territory to the Muslims by the end of
the 7th century. This lessened influence with Rome, which was aligning itself
with the Franks (e.g., Charlemagne) to create the Holy Roman Empire and
protect itself from the Byzantine Empire and the barbarians.
The papal states (in Italy) were granted to the Pope by Pepin the Short in 754.
The Pope began to crown emperors, but it also led to state officials bestowing
staff/rings (symbols of spiritual authority) to clergy (Investiture). Clergy or
prelates became secular rulers also appointed by the king. Reform of
Investiture occurred late in the 11th century.
Holy Roman Empire
Papal states
Mobile Monks/Friars
St. Francis of Assisi ministers to the poor outside town
walls. Great need to minister to everyone.
He creates the manger scene — creche — that is used at
Christmas time.
Coincides with the Crusades (1095 – 1270) and the
increased movement of merchants between countries and
empires.
Education is for the elite and is still not provided to the
masses.
The First Crusade
In response to the announcement by Pope Urban II of a Crusade to the Holy Land in 1095,
Christian forces from western Europe converged on Constantinople, where they united
with Byzantine forces to attack Seljuk Turk armies in Anatolia and Muslim armies in Syria
and Palestine. By 1099 the Crusaders had achieved their goal — the capture of the city of
Jerusalem. However, Christian territories acquired during the First Crusade were
gradually lost over the next 200 years. Jerusalem was recaptured by Muslim forces in
1187, and the last Christian stonghold in the Holy Land fell in 1291.
The Crusader States
In the aftermath of the First Crusade (1096–1099), Europeans carved out four states
in Palestine, on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Many castles and
fortresses were built to protect the states from Muslim forces. However, the Muslims
gradually recaptured the territory, and European presence in Palestine ended with
the fall of the city of Acre in 1291.
Constantinople Again
The crusades weakened Constantinople,
which fell to the Turks in 1453. In fact the
crusades helped to band the Muslims
together to expel the crusaders. This began
the shift of the Eastern Orthodox Church’s
center of power toward Ukraine/Russia.
This is the Galata Tower, which
overlooks the Bosporus strait and
from which the Venetians watched the
Turks capture Constantinople.
Constantinople
View from the old city north
on the European side.
View from the old city
east to the Asian side.
Great schism between rival Popes!
In 1378, two rival Popes (Pope Urban VI; Clement VII) were
elected. Pope Urban was elected first but was not deemed fit
by many others for the position. Clement VII was elected and
moved (captive) to Avignon, France, where the French king
welcomed him (Church-State problems). Allegiance to a Pope
was politically motivated.
Conflict between Rome and Avignon lasted about 50 years
and led to a call for reform in Church affairs. The problem
was solved by the Council of Constance in 1414–1418.
This schism sowed the seeds for reform within the Catholic
Church and for the Protestant Reformation movement.
Reformation
“Straw that broke the camel’s back” was corruption in the Church at all
levels. Lutheranism is the first protestant church, which spreads to
Scandinavia. Calvin leads reform in France and Zwingli in Switzerland.
Response to the Vatican/Pope selling indulgences, jobs, offices, etc. Leads to
rejection of papal authority by Protestants. This had occurred in the
previous century as Wycliffe in England and Hus in Bohemia spoke out
against this practice. Hus was executed as a heretic in 1415.
The Reformation could not have occurred without willing kings, dukes, etc.,
who created a new Church-state relationship (as in the Rome-Avignon
schism). Aided by the invention of the printing press in 1450, information
could be quickly spread to the masses.
Reformation — a quest for education of religion to all not just clergy.
Centers on the Bible (Scripture) rather than scripture and Church tradition.
Worship is allowed in the vernacular language rather than using Latin.
Henry VIII creates the Anglican Church — a personal matter that later
turned to doctrinal matters.
Rise of Protestantism: Europe experienced a tremendous religious revolution during the 16th
century that caused a severe disintegration of the nearly absolute power wielded by the Roman
Catholic church in Europe. The rise of Islam in the 7th century and the failing relations between the
eastern and western Catholic churches, which led ultimately to the final schism in 1054, had already
dealt Roman Catholicism a mighty blow. John Huss (Jan Hus), Peter Waldo, and John Wycliffe, preReformation activists, set the stage for the large-scale movements of the 16th-century reformers such
as Martin Luther and John Calvin. Ernst Troeltsch, a German church historian, called this time the Age
of Confession, in part because each new group scrutinized and thus forced confessions from the ones
that preceded it. The timeline pictured here shows many of the wide array of religious groups that
have arisen since Martin Luther first nailed his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the Castle Church in
Wittenberg.
Protestant Europe
During the 16th century, Roman Catholic Europe underwent several drastic changes as
Protestant reform movements swept through the continent. The Roman Catholic church
and its ruling papacy could not withstand the tremendous onslaught of reformers such
as Martin Luther and John Calvin. Though the church launched a strong Counter
Reformation, it never managed to regain the territory it lost during the 16th and 17th
centuries.
Counter Reformation #8 – Trent 1545-63
After the schism created by Luther and the protestant reform
movement, the Church convened this council.
Response was too late in many respects. But, the Church
sought to revitalize itself and oppose Protestantism.
An activist program developed that spread Christianity to the
newly explored territories in the Far East and in North and
South America.
The key doctrines that were under attack and defined were:
The need for scripture and tradition, performing good works
aided by grace, the 7 sacraments, the hierarchical Church,
divine institution of the priesthood, transubstantiation and
the sacrificial character of the Mass.
Papal supremacy was reinforced. This is the direct line to St.
Peter – “on this rock, I will build my Church”.
Counter Reformation #8 – Trent 1545-63
Led to a continuation of Renaissance art, architecture and
music.
St. Peter’s basilica was built.
Erasmus and St. Thomas Moore created guidelines that
should enable the lay person to achieve an individual
connection with God. Theology should be open to all laity.
Influenced liberal arts scholarship.
The Jesuits were founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola. They
ministered worldwide. Other new orders also were initiated.
Significant increase in faith and good works by Catholics
arose from the Council of Trent.
Post Counter Reformation #8
Some problems; for example the trial of Galileo because of his
assertion from Copernican theory that the earth revolved
around the sun.
Galileo wrote in 1614 on the irrelevance of biblical passages in
scientific arguments, holding that interpretation of the Bible
should be adapted to increasing knowledge and that no
scientific position should ever be made an article of Roman
Catholic faith.
Philosophers helped in having Church theologians create the
conflict by linking Galileo’s science with heresy.
This created friction between science, religion and philosophy.
Galileo was vindicated in 1992 by a papal commission that
acknowledged the Vatican’s error of near 4 centuries ago. Much
of this due to our Pope, John Paul II.
First Vatican Council #9 – 1869-70
By this time, the church was not closely tied together with any
state. This was true of Protestantism also.
Papal states were taken over by the government of Italy, but Pope
Pius IX expanded his spiritual authority over the international
Church (Ultramontanism). He had already declared the
“Immaculate Conception” in 1854.
Doctrine of papal infallibility on matters of religion (faith and
morals) was declared. Described the Pope’s role in the Church and
enhanced Papal ministry, which is so important today.
This Council spurred an internal spiritual renewal with many
entering seminaries, convents and monasteries. This at a time when
Marx, Nietzsche and others openly attacked Christianity.
Hospitals and missions were founded around the world.
Mass attendance and devotional life increased.
Second Vatican Council #10 – 1962-65
Pope John XXIII called for an updating that would be a
pastoral response to the contemporary needs of the modern
world.
Reaching out to other Churches/movements including
Protestants and Eastern Orthodox rites. Finally the Church
began to tolerate other churches and to try to reconcile past
schisms. Still a long way to go because of the long history.
Enhanced scientific-historical studies of the Bible which
were resisted in the 19th century.
Vernacular languages permitted for the celebration of the
Mass! Latin usage had continued through the centuries.
Advanced the dignity of human beings; liberation of
humans from political and economic oppression important.
Where are we now?
Problems as in the recent sexual abuse of laity by priests.
Pope John Paul II has been a staunch supporter of the
reforms of Vatican Council II. He has made significant
efforts to reconcile differences between other churches, but
has been rebuffed by the Russian Orthodox Church.
He and other recent Popes have been deeply religious and
committed to Christ.
We’ve been blessed to have so many saints to inspire us to
live as Christ taught us. We also know of people in our
lifetime who will likely become saints.
We are still a Church where Jesus abides with us through
the Holy Spirit.